Environmental effects
Changes in the environment (such as the composition of the solvent) frequently influence the course of the reaction by affecting the relative stabilization of the initial state and the transition state. Large changes in the polar character (charge distribution) of the solvent, for example, may have an effect on the course of the reaction if there is a substantial change in polarity between the reactants and the transition state.
Electronic and isotopic effects
Structure-reactivity relations
An observed correlation of changes in a reaction rate with systematic changes in the structure of one of the reactants often reveals the movements of electrons between atoms as the reactants shift toward the transition state. Systematic changes in structure usually are brought about by selecting a particular molecular system and varying a portion of it (such as, for example, the substituents on a benzene ring). The effects of each variant on the rates of several different reactions are determined experimentally, and the results are plotted on graphs; the values resulting from a particular molecular variation in one reaction are measured along one axis and those of the same variation in the other reaction along the other axis. A straight-line relationship indicates that the molecular changes are affecting the rates of the two reactions in related ways. The slope of the line gives a comparison of the relative response of the two systems to the given change in structure; the sign of the slope tells whether a particular structural change favours both reactions or favours one while disfavouring the other. The observed effects generally can be correlated with the electronic nature of the molecular variants introduced. For example, if a substituent in the molecule tends to donate electrons toward the reactive centre in the molecule and this change favours the reaction, it can be concluded that an electron-rich centre is involved in the transition state.
Electronic effects of the above kinds can be complicated by spatial, or steric, factors. (A reaction is said to be sterically hindered when the transition state is more congested than the initial state and to be sterically accelerated when the reverse is true.) When suitable allowance is made for the above electronic influences, structural changes can be used to help define the detailed geometry of the transition state. Thus, if large or bulky substituents have an inhibiting effect on the course of the reaction, it can be concluded that the transition state differs from the starting material in such a way that the effect of the bulky group is accentuated; in the alternative situation, in which a bulky substituent accelerates the reaction, it may be concluded that the formation of the transition state relieves crowding found in the starting material. Although absolute calculations of reactivity—that is, calculations based on molecular structure alone—have made little progress in the case of polyatomic systems, significant calculations of reactivity differences have been made in favourable instances in which steric and electronic effects can be disentangled.
Kinetic isotope effects
Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number (and, hence, generally the same chemistry) but different mass. The difference in mass becomes chemically important in certain instances. For example, when a carbon-hydrogen bond is replaced by a carbon-deuterium bond (deuterium being an isotope of hydrogen with about twice the mass), the vibrational frequencies of that bond are changed. The vibrational stretching frequency of a bond between two atoms, for example, gives an approximate measure of the bonding forces holding those two atoms together, the effective masses of the two atoms being allowed for. If the character of the carbon-hydrogen bond is altered between the normal state and the transition state, the change from hydrogen to deuterium may have an effect on the relative stabilities of the normal and transition states and also, therefore, on the rate of reaction. These effects of isotopic substitution are called kinetic isotope effects. In cases in which the atom that is substituted is linked to the rest of the molecule by only one bond, the bond involving the heavier isotope is usually more difficult to break than the one involving the lighter isotope. Isotope effects are large only for the isotopes of hydrogen, but, with heavier elements, even small differences can give important information about the mechanism, provided that sufficiently precise methods are available for their measurement.
Classification of reaction mechanisms
There is no one generally agreed-upon and completely satisfactory method of classifying mechanisms; individual authors have often adopted their own nomenclature and symbolism. There are, however, a number of useful classification principles that should be noted.
Homolysis and heterolysis
When a covalent bond (a nonionic chemical bond formed by shared electrons) is made up of two electrons, each of which is supplied by a different atom, the process is called colligation; the reverse process, in which the electrons of a covalent bond are split between two atoms, is known as homolysis. These reactions are shown schematically by the equation
in which A and B represent the separate atoms (or groups), the single dots represent electrons, and the double dots represent the electron pair that makes up the bond. The products of a homolysis reaction are called free radicals, and all such processes are said to have homolytic or free-radical mechanisms.
If, on the other hand, a covalent bond is formed by a pair of electrons both of which come from one of the two reagents, the process may be described as coordination and its reverse as heterolysis. Coordination and heterolysis are shown schematically by the equation
in which the dots indicate the electron pair and the letters N and E represent the atoms (or groups) that, respectively, donate and accept the electrons (see below for special significance of the letters N and E). Reactions of this kind are said to have heterolytic mechanisms.