In gymnosperms (plants with “naked seeds”—such as conifers, cycads, and ginkgo), the ovules are not enclosed in an ovary but lie exposed on leaflike structures, the megasporophylls. A long time span usually separates pollination and fertilization, and the ovules begin to develop into seeds long before fertilization has been accomplished; in some cases, in fact, fertilization does not occur until the ovules (“seeds”) have been shed from the tree. In the European, or Scots, pine (Pinus sylvestris), for example, the female cones (essentially collections of megasporophylls) begin to develop in winter and are ready to receive pollen from the male cones in spring. During the first growing season, the pollen tube grows slowly through the nucellus, while within the ovule the megaspore nucleus, through a series of divisions, gives rise to a collection of some 2,000 nuclei, which are then individually enclosed by walls to form a structure called the female gametophyte or prothallus. At the micropylar end of the ovule, several archegonia (bottle-shaped female organs) develop, each containing an oosphere (“egg”). The pollen tube ultimately penetrates the neck of one of the archegonia. Not until the second growing season, however, does the nucleus of one of the male cells in the tube unite with the oosphere nucleus. Although more than one archegonium may be fertilized, only one gives rise to a viable embryo. During the latter’s development, part of the prothallus is broken down and used. The remainder, referred to as endosperm, surrounds the embryo; it is mobilized later, during germination of the seed, a process that occurs without delay when the seeds are liberated from the female cone during the third year after their initiation.

Seed size

In the Late Carboniferous Period (about 315.2 million to 298.9 million years ago), some seed ferns produced large seeds (12 × 6 cm [5 × 2 inches] in Pachytesta incrassata). This primitive ancestral condition of large seeds is reflected in certain gymnosperms (Cycas circinalis, 5.5 × 4 cm [2.2 × 1.6 inches]; Araucaria bidwillii, 4.5 × 3.5 cm [1.8 × 1.4 inches]) and also in some tropical rainforest trees with nondormant water-rich seeds (Mora excelsa, 12 × 7 cm [4.7 × 2.8 inches]). The “double coconut” palm Lodoicea maldivica represents the extreme, with seeds weighing up to 27 kg (about 60 pounds). Herbaceous nontropical flowering plants usually have seeds weighing in the range of about 0.0001 to 0.01 gram. Within a given family (e.g., the pea family, Fabaceae), seed size may vary greatly; in others it is consistently large or small, justifying the recognition of “megaspermous” families (e.g., beech, nutmeg, palm, and soursop families) and “microspermous” ones (e.g., milkweed, daisy, heather, nettle, and willow families).

The smallest known seeds, devoid of food reserves, are found in orchids, mycoheterotrophs (nongreen plants that absorb nutrients from dead organic matter and live symbiotically with mycorrizal fungi—e.g., Indian pipe, Monotropa; coral root, Corallorhiza), carnivorous plants (sundews, pitcher plants), and total parasites (members of the families Rafflesiaceae and Orobanchaceae, or broomrapes, which have seeds weighing as little as 0.001 mg—about 3.5 hundred-millionths of an ounce). Clearly, seed size is related to lifestyle. Total parasites obtain food from their host, even in their early growth stages, and young orchids are mycoheterotrophs that receive assistance in absorbing nutrients from mycorrhizal fungi that are associated closely with their roots. In both cases only very small seeds that lack endosperm are produced. Dodders (Cuscuta) and mistletoes (Viscum, Phoradendron, Amyema) live independently when very young and accordingly have relatively large seeds.

Many plant species possess seeds of remarkably uniform size, useful as beads (e.g., Abrus precatorius) or units of weight—one carat of weight once corresponded with one seed of the carob tree, Ceratonia siliqua. In wheat and many other plants, average seed size does not depend on planting density, showing that seed size is under rather strict genetic control. This does not necessarily preclude significant variation among individual seeds; in peas, for example, the seeds occupying the central region of the pod are the largest, probably as the result of competition for nutrients between developing ovules on the placenta. Striking evolutionary changes in seed size, inadvertently created by humans, have occurred in the weed known as gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa), which grows in flax fields. The customary winnowing of flax seeds selects forms of C. sativa whose seeds are blown over the same distance as flax seeds in the operation, thus staying with their “models.” Consequently, C. sativa seeds in the south of Russia now mimic the relatively thick, heavy seeds of the oil flax that is grown there, whereas in the northwest they resemble the flat, thin seeds of the predominant fibre flax.