- Key People:
- Henri Bergson
- Ferdinand Berthoud
News •
Local mean solar time depends upon longitude; it is advanced by four minutes per degree eastward. In 1869 Charles F. Dowd, principal of a school in Saratoga Springs, New York, proposed the use of time zones, within which all localities would keep the same time. Others, including Sir Sandford Fleming, a Canadian civil engineer, strongly advocated this idea. Time zones were adopted by U.S. and Canadian railroads in 1883.
In October 1884 an international conference held in Washington, D.C., adopted the meridian of the transit instrument at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, as the prime, or zero, meridian. This led to the adoption of 24 standard time zones; the boundaries are determined by local authorities and in many places deviate considerably from the 15° intervals of longitude implicit in the original idea. The times in different zones differ by an integral number of hours; minutes and seconds are the same.
The International Date Line is a line in the mid-Pacific Ocean near 180° longitude. When one travels across it westward a calendar day is added; one day is dropped in passing eastward. This line also deviates from a straight path in places to accommodate national boundaries and waters.
During World War I, daylight-saving time was adopted in various countries; clocks were advanced one hour to save fuel by reducing the need for artificial light in evening hours. During World War II, all clocks in the United States were kept one hour ahead of standard time for the interval February 9, 1942–September 30, 1945, with no changes made in summer. Beginning in 1967, by act of Congress, the United States has observed daylight-saving time in summer, though state legislatures retain the power to pass exempting laws, and a few have done so.
The day begins at midnight and runs through 24 hours. In the 24-hour system of reckoning, used in Europe and by military agencies of the United States, the hours and minutes are given as a four-digit number. Thus 0028 means 28 minutes past midnight, and 1240 means 40 minutes past noon. Also, 2400 of May 15 is the same as 0000 of May 16. This system allows no uncertainty as to the epoch designated.
In the 12-hour system there are two sets of 12 hours; those from midnight to noon are designated am (ante meridiem, “before noon”), and those from noon to midnight are designated pm (post meridiem, “after noon”). The use of am and pm to designate either noon or midnight can cause ambiguity. To designate noon, either the word noon or 1200 or 12 M should be used. To designate midnight without causing ambiguity, the two dates between which it falls should be given unless the 24-hour notation is used. Thus, midnight may be written: May 15–16 or 2400 May 15 or 0000 May 16.
Universal Time
Until 1928 the standard time of the zero meridian was called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Astronomers used Greenwich Mean Astronomical Time (GMAT), in which the day begins at noon. In 1925 the system was changed so that GMT was adopted by astronomers, and in 1928 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the term Universal Time (UT).
In 1955 the IAU defined several kinds of UT. The initial values of Universal Time obtained at various observatories, denoted UT0, differ slightly because of polar motion. A correction is added for each observatory to convert UT0 into UT1. An empirical correction to take account of annual changes in the speed of rotation is then added to convert UT1 to UT2. UT2 has since been superseded by atomic time.
Variations in the Earth’s rotation rate
The Earth does not rotate with perfect uniformity, and the variations have been classified as (1) secular, resulting from tidal friction, (2) irregular, ascribed to motions of the Earth’s core, and (3) periodic, caused by seasonal meteorological phenomena.
Separating the first two categories is very difficult. Observations made since 1621, after the introduction of the telescope, show irregular fluctuations about a decade in duration and a long one that began about 1650 and is not yet complete. The large amplitude of this effect makes it impossible to determine the secular variation from data accumulated during an interval of only about four centuries. The record is supplemented, however, by reports—not always reliable—of eclipses that occurred tens of centuries ago. From this extended set of information it is found that, relative to dynamical time, the length of the mean solar day increases secularly about 1.6 milliseconds per century, the rate of the Earth’s rotation decreases about one part per million in 5,000 years, and rotational time loses about 30 seconds per century squared.
The annual seasonal term, nearly periodic, has a coefficient of about 25 milliseconds.
Coordinated Universal Time; leap seconds
The time and frequency broadcasts of the United Kingdom and the United States were coordinated (synchronized) in 1960. As required, adjustments were made in frequency, relative to atomic time, and in epoch to keep the broadcast signals close to the UT scale. This program expanded in 1964 under the auspices of the IAU into a worldwide system called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
Since Jan. 1, 1972, the UTC frequency has been the TAI frequency, the difference between TAI and UTC has been kept at some integral number of seconds, and the difference between UT1 and UTC has been kept within 0.9 second by inserting a leap second into UTC as needed. Synchronization is achieved by making the last minute of June or December contain 61 (or, possibly, 59) seconds.
About one leap second per year has been inserted since 1972. Estimates of the loss per year of UT1 relative to TAI owing to tidal friction range from 0.7 second in 1900 to 1.3 seconds in 2000. Irregular fluctuations cause unpredictable gains or losses; these have not exceeded 0.3 second per year.
Time determination
The classical, astrometric methods of obtaining UT0 are, in essence, determinations of the instant at which a star crosses the local celestial meridian. Instruments used include the transit, the photographic zenith tube, and the prismatic astrolabe.
The transit is a small telescope that can be moved only in the plane of the meridian. The observer generates a signal at the instant that the image of the star is seen to cross a very thin cross hair aligned in the meridian plane. The signal is recorded on a chronograph that simultaneously displays the readings of the clock that is being checked.
The photographic zenith tube (PZT) is a telescope permanently mounted in a precisely vertical position. The light from a star passing almost directly overhead is refracted by the lens, reflected from the perfectly horizontal surface of a pool of mercury, and brought to a focus just beneath the lens. A photographic plate records the images of the star at clock times close to that at which it crosses the meridian. The vertical alignment of the PZT minimizes the effects of atmospheric refraction. From the positions of the images on the plate, the time at which the star transits the meridian can be accurately compared with the clock time. The distance of the star from the zenith (north or south) also can be ascertained. This distance varies slightly from year to year and is a measure of the latitude variation caused by the slight movement of the Earth’s axis of rotation relative to its crust.
The prismatic astrolabe is a refinement of the instrument used since antiquity for measuring the altitude of a star above the horizon. The modern device consists of a horizontal telescope into which the light from the star is reflected from two surfaces of a prism that has three faces at 60° angles. The light reaches one of these faces directly from the star; it reaches the other after reflection from the surface of a pool of mercury. The light traversing the separate paths is focused to form two images of the star that coincide when the star reaches the altitude of 60°. This instant is automatically recorded and compared with the reading of a clock. Like the PZT, the prismatic astrolabe detects the variation in the latitude of the observatory.
Dynamical time
Dynamical time is defined descriptively as the independent variable, T, in the differential equations of motion of celestial bodies. The gravitational ephemeris of a planet tabulates its orbital position for values of T. Observation of the position of the planet makes it possible to consult the ephemeris and find the corresponding dynamical time.
The most sensitive index of dynamical time is the position of the Moon because of the rapid motion of that body across the sky. The equations that would exactly describe the motion of the Moon in the absence of tidal friction, however, must be slightly modified to account for the deceleration that this friction produces. The correction is made by adding an empirical term, αT2, to the longitude, λ, given by gravitational theory. The need for this adjustment was not recognized for a long time.
The American astronomer Simon Newcomb noted in 1878 that fluctuations in λ that he had found could be due to fluctuations in rotational time; he compiled a table of Δt, its difference from the time scale based on uniform rotation of the Earth. Realizing that nonuniform rotation of the Earth should also cause apparent fluctuations in the motion of Mercury, Newcomb searched for these in 1882 and 1896, but the observational errors were so large that he could not confirm his theory.
A large fluctuation in the Earth’s rotational speed, ω, began about 1896, and its effects on the apparent motions of both the Moon and Mercury were described by the Scottish-born astronomer Robert T.A. Innes in 1925. Innes proposed a time scale based on the motion of the Moon, and his scale of Δt from 1677 to 1924, based on observations of Mercury, was the first true dynamical scale, later called Ephemeris Time.
Ephemeris Time
Further studies by the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter in 1927 and by Harold Spencer Jones (later Sir Harold, Astronomer Royal of England) in 1939 confirmed that ω had secular and irregular variations. Using their results, the U.S. astronomer Gerald M. Clemence in 1948 derived the equations needed to define a dynamical scale numerically and to convert measurements of the Moon’s position into time values. The fundamental definition was based on the Earth’s orbital motion as given by Newcomb’s tables of the Sun of 1898. The IAU adopted the dynamical scale in 1952 and called it Ephemeris Time (ET). Clemence’s equations were used to revise the lunar ephemeris published in 1919 by the American mathematician Ernest W. Brown to form the Improved Lunar Ephemeris (ILE) of 1954.
Ephemeris second
The IAU in 1958 defined the second of Ephemeris Time as 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year that began at the instant specified, in astronomers’ terms, as 1900 January 0d 12h, “the instant, near the beginning of the calendar year ad 1900, when the geocentric mean longitude of the Sun was 279° 41′ 48.04″ ”—that is, Greenwich noon on Dec. 31, 1899. In 1960 the General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) adopted the same definition for the SI second.
Since, however, 1900 was past, this definition could not be used to obtain the ET or SI second. It was obtained in practice from lunar observations and the ILE and was the basis of the redefinition, in 1967, of the SI second on the atomic time scale. The present SI second thus depends directly on the ILE.
The ET second defined by the ILE is based in a complex manner on observations made up to 1938 of the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, and Venus, referred to the variable, mean solar time. Observations show that the ET second equals the average mean solar second from 1750 to 1903.
TDB and TDT
In 1976 the IAU defined two scales for dynamical theories and ephemerides to be used in almanacs beginning in 1984.
Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) is the independent variable in the equations, including terms for relativity, of motion of the celestial bodies. The solution of these equations gives the rectangular coordinates of those bodies relative to the barycentre (centre of mass) of the solar system. (The barycentre does not coincide with the centre of the Sun but is displaced to a point near its surface in the direction of Jupiter.) Which theory of general relativity to use was not specified, so a family of TDB scales could be formed, but the differences in coordinates would be small.
Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT) is an auxiliary scale defined by the equation TDT = TAI + 32.184 s. Its unit is the SI second. The constant difference between TDT and TAI makes TDT continuous with ET for periods before TAI was defined (mid-1955). TDT is the time entry in apparent geocentric ephemerides.
The definitions adopted require that TDT = TDB - R, where R is the sum of the periodic, relativistic terms not included in TAI. Both the above equations for TDT can be valid only if dynamical and atomic times are equivalent (see below Atomic time: SI second).
For use in almanacs the barycentric coordinates of the Earth and a body at epoch TDB are transformed into the coordinates of the body as viewed from the centre of the Earth at the epoch TDT when a light ray from the body would arrive there. Almanacs tabulate these geocentric coordinates for equal intervals of TDT; since TDT is available immediately from TAI, comparisons between computed and observed positions are readily made.
Since Jan. 1, 1984, the principal ephemerides in The Astronomical Almanac, published jointly by the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the U.S. Naval Observatory, have been based on a highly accurate ephemeris compiled by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, in cooperation with the Naval Observatory. This task involved the simultaneous numerical integration of the equations of motion of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets. The coordinates and velocities at a known time were based on very accurate distance measurements (made with the aid of radar, laser beams, and spacecraft), optical angular observations, and atomic clocks.
