John Stuart Mill: The later years of John Stuart Mill: …1865 he published both his Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy and his Auguste Comte and Positivism, but in both writings his motives were largely political. It was because he regarded the writings and sayings of Sir William Hamilton as the great fortress of intuitional philosophy in Great Britain that…

Martin Chemnitz: …(1570); Examen concilii tridentini (1565–73; Examination of the Council of Trent), the standard Lutheran analysis of the doctrinal decisions of the Council of Trent (1545–63); and a partial presentation of his theology in the form of a commentary on Melanchthon’s Loci communes (1591).

John Forster: …he was editor of The Examiner (1847–55). In 1855 he became secretary to the lunacy commissioners and in 1861 became a commissioner. Apart from his Dickens study, Forster’s Life and Adventures of Oliver Goldsmith (1848; expanded into The Life and Times . . . , 1854), his Walter Savage Landor…

English literature: Discursive prose: …outspoken journalism, particularly in his Examiner (begun 1808), was of wide influence, and by William Cobbett, whose Rural Rides (collected in 1830 from his Political Register) gives a telling picture, in forceful and clear prose, of the English countryside of his day.

magistrates’ court: …the magistrates sit as “examining justices,” whereby they carry out inquiries preliminary to trial in serious matters that may require committal of the accused to a higher court for trial. All criminal charges are initially brought before magistrates’ courts. More serious charges are subsequently committed for trial at the…

magistrates’ court: …the magistrates sit as “examining justices,” whereby they carry out inquiries preliminary to trial in serious matters that may require committal of the accused to a higher court for trial. All criminal charges are initially brought before magistrates’ courts. More serious charges are subsequently committed for trial at the…

roseola infantum, infectious disease of early childhood marked by rapidly developing high fever (to 106° F) lasting about three days and then subsiding completely. A few hours after the temperature returns to normal, a mildly itchy rash develops suddenly on the trunk, neck, and behind the ears but

childhood disease and disorder: Classic infectious diseases of childhood: …diseases of childhood include the exanthematous viral infections (i.e., measles, chicken pox, German measles, and other viral infections that produce skin eruptions) and mumps. The incidence of these diseases, which were once endemic among childhood populations throughout much of the world, now varies markedly. Smallpox, the most serious of the…

insect: Types of larvae: …less glued to the body; exarate, with the appendages free and not glued to the body; and coarctate, which is essentially exarate but remaining covered by the cast skins (exuviae) of the next to the last larval instar (name given to the form of an insect between molts).

Italy: Lombards and Byzantines: …appointed from Constantinople and called exarch from about 590. Exarchs were changed quite frequently, probably because military figures far from the centre of the empire who developed a local following might revolt (as happened in 619 and 651) or else turn themselves into autonomous rulers. But the impermanence of the…

galliform: Size range and diversity of structure: …the order are the sparrow-sized painted quail (Excalfactoria), about 13 cm (5 inches) long and about 45 grams (about 1.5 ounces) in weight. The heaviest galliform is the common, or wild, turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), wild specimens of which may weigh up to 11 kg (about 24 pounds); the longest is…

Excalibur, in Arthurian legend, King Arthur’s sword. As a boy, Arthur alone was able to draw the sword out of a stone in which it had been magically fixed. This account is contained in Sir Thomas Malory’s 15th-century prose rendering of the Arthurian legend, but another story in the same work

John Boorman: From Deliverance to Hope and Glory: …commercial and critical success with Excalibur (1981), an ambitious production that featured breathtaking cinematography and a top-notch cast: Nicol Williamson, Patrick Stewart, Helen Mirren, and Liam Neeson. Just as visually distinctive—and oddly mystical—was The Emerald Forest (1985), the story of a boy (Charley Boorman, John’s son, in a strong

protozoan: Annotated classification: Excavata Predominantly heterotrophic organisms possessing a distinctive suspension feeding groove (ventral cytostome) and a recurrent flagellum (often beats over cytostome with a slow undulating motion). Placement of Heterolobosea and Euglenozoa within Excavata remains a source of debate, due to confounding morphological and genetic evidence. Fornicata…

excavating machine, any machine, usually self-powered, that is used in digging or earth-moving operations of some kind; the power shovel, bulldozer, and grader (qq.v.) are

Willem de Kooning: Early life and work: …Asheville (1948–49), Attic (1949), and Excavation (1950), which reintroduced colour and seem to sum up with taut decisiveness the problems of free-associative composition he had struggled with for many years.

tunnels and underground excavations: excavations, horizontal underground passageway produced by excavation or occasionally by nature’s action in dissolving a soluble rock, such as limestone. A vertical opening is usually called a shaft. Tunnels have many uses: for mining ores, for transportation—including road vehicles, trains,

excavation, in archaeology, the exposure, recording, and recovery of buried material remains. In a sense, excavation is the surgical aspect of archaeology: it is surgery of the buried landscape and is carried out with all the skilled craftsmanship that has been built up in the era since

Bristol-Myers Squibb Company: …the company permission to market Excedrin Migraine, the first migraine headache pain medication available to consumers without a prescription. Following its sale of the hair-products company Clairol to Procter & Gamble Co., Bristol-Myers acquired the DuPont Pharmaceuticals Company from the DuPont Company in 2001.

Excelsior diamond, until the discovery of the Cullinan diamond in 1905, the world’s largest-known uncut diamond. When found by a worker loading a truck in the De Beers mine at Jagersfontein, Orange Free State, on June 30, 1893, the blue-white stone weighed about 995 carats. After long study the

Excelsior Springs, city, astride the Ray-Clay county line, western Missouri, U.S., 12 miles (19 km) northeast of Kansas City. Founded in 1880, it developed as a health resort noted for its mineral waters. Today, while mainly residential, it still maintains ties with its past through its Hall of

St. Clement of Alexandria: Early life and career: …gnostic), with commentary by Clement, Excerpta ex Theodoto; the Eclogae Propheticae (or Extracts), in the form of notes; and a few fragments of his biblical commentary Hypotyposeis (Outlines).

liquid: Activity coefficients and excess functions: …designated by GE, called the excess Gibbs (or free) energy. The significance of the word excess lies in the fact that GE is the Gibbs energy of a solution in excess of what it would be if it were ideal.

dating: Thorium-230 dating: This is defined as excess thorium-230 because its abundance exceeds the equilibrium amount that should be present. With time, the excess decays away and the age of any horizon in a core sample can be estimated from the observed thorium-230-to-thorium-232 ratio in the seawater-derived component of the core. Sedimentation…

dating: Thorium-230 dating: This is defined as excess thorium-230 because its abundance exceeds the equilibrium amount that should be present. With time, the excess decays away and the age of any horizon in a core sample can be estimated from the observed thorium-230-to-thorium-232 ratio in the seawater-derived component of the core. Sedimentation…

hydrosphere: The early hydrosphere: …water vapour, have been called excess volatiles because their masses cannot be accounted for simply by rock weathering. These volatiles are thought to have formed the early atmosphere of Earth. At an initial crustal temperature of about 600 °C (about 1,100 °F), almost all of these compounds, including water (H2O),…

insurance: Reinsurance: …of treaties exist—pro rata and excess-of-loss treaties. In the former, all premiums and losses may be divided according to stated percentages. In the latter, the originating insurer accepts the risk of loss up to a stated amount, and above this amount the reinsurers divide any losses. Reinsurance is also frequently…

excess-profits tax, a tax levied on profits in excess of a stipulated standard of “normal” income. There are two principles governing the determination of excess profits. One, known as the war-profits principle, is designed to recapture wartime increases in income over normal peacetime profits of

barter, the direct exchange of goods or services—without an intervening medium of exchange or money—either according to established rates of exchange or by bargaining. It is considered the oldest form of commerce. Barter is common among traditional societies, particularly in those communities with

international payment and exchange: exchange, respectively, any payment made by one country to another and the market in which national currencies are bought and sold by those who require them for such payments. Countries may make payments in settlement of a trade debt, for capital investment, or for other…

bank: Specialization: …be divided into two classes: exchange banks and banks of deposit. The last were banks that, besides receiving deposits, made loans and thus associated themselves with the trade and industries of a country. The exchange banks included in former years institutions such as the Bank of Hamburg and the Bank…

austausch coefficient, in fluid mechanics, particularly in its applications to meteorology and oceanography, the proportionality between the rate of transport of a component of a turbulent fluid and the rate of change of density of the component. In this context, the term component signifies not

exchange control, governmental restrictions on private transactions in foreign exchange (foreign money or claims on foreign money). The chief function of most systems of exchange control is to prevent or redress an adverse balance of payments by limiting foreign-exchange purchases to an amount not

security: Trading procedures: In an exchange distribution a member firm accumulates the necessary buy orders and then crosses them on the floor. This is distinguished from an ordinary “cross” because the selling broker may provide extra compensation to his own registered representatives and to other participating firms. A special offering…

barter, the direct exchange of goods or services—without an intervening medium of exchange or money—either according to established rates of exchange or by bargaining. It is considered the oldest form of commerce. Barter is common among traditional societies, particularly in those communities with

crystal: Antiferromagnetic materials: The exchange interaction between ions in this case has the opposite sign and favours the alternate arrangements of spins. The sign of the exchange interaction between ions depends on the length of the covalent bond and the bonding angles; it may have either orientation. The characteristic…

crystal: Antiferromagnetic materials: The exchange interaction between ions in this case has the opposite sign and favours the alternate arrangements of spins. The sign of the exchange interaction between ions depends on the length of the covalent bond and the bonding angles; it may have either orientation. The characteristic…

exchange marriage, form of marriage involving an arranged and reciprocal exchange of spouses between two groups. Exchange marriage is most common in societies that have a unilineal descent system emphasizing the male line (patrilineality) and a consistent expectation of postmarital residence with

biogeochemical cycle: …slow-moving, usually abiotic portion—and an exchange (cycling) pool—a smaller but more-active portion concerned with the rapid exchange between the biotic and abiotic aspects of an ecosystem.

exchange rate, the price of a country’s money in relation to another country’s money. An exchange rate is “fixed” when countries use gold or another agreed-upon standard, and each currency is worth a specific measure of the metal or other standard. An exchange rate is “floating” when supply and

isotope: Chemical effects of isotopic substitution: The exchange reaction H2 + D2 → 2HDprovides an example of random behaviour at high temperature and isotope-specific behaviour at lower ones. If two volumes of gas consisting, respectively, of H2 and D2 only, are mixed, the hydrogen–hydrogen and deuterium–deuterium bonds will gradually break and new…

blood transfusion: Transfusion procedures and blood storage: Exchange transfusion, in which all or most of the patient’s blood is removed while new blood is simultaneously transfused, is of use in treating erythroblastosis fetalis and leukemia and in removing certain poisons from the body.

Carl Menger: …disprove the Aristotelian view that exchange involves a transaction of equal value for equal value. In exchange, Menger pointed out, people will give up what they value less in return for what they value more, which is why both sides can gain from an exchange. That led him to the…

bill of exchange, short-term negotiable financial instrument consisting of an order in writing addressed by one person (the seller of goods) to another (the buyer) requiring the latter to pay on demand (a sight draft) or at a fixed or determinable future time (a time draft) a certain sum of money

monetarism: …the monetarist theory is the equation of exchange, which is expressed as MV = PQ. Here M is the supply of money, and V is the velocity of turnover of money (i.e., the number of times per year that the average dollar in the money supply is spent for goods…

international payment and exchange: exchange, respectively, any payment made by one country to another and the market in which national currencies are bought and sold by those who require them for such payments. Countries may make payments in settlement of a trade debt, for capital investment, or for other…

money: …that sustains money as a medium of exchange breaks down, people will then seek substitutes—like the cigarettes and cognac that for a time served as the medium of exchange in Germany after World War II. New money may substitute for old under less extreme conditions. In many countries with a…

gift exchange, the transfer of goods or services that, although regarded as voluntary by the people involved, is part of the expected social behaviour. Gift exchange may be distinguished from other types of exchange in several respects: the first offering is made in a generous manner and there is

JPEG: …exchangeable image file format (EXIF) information that stores details about when a picture was taken and even settings such as exposure and shutter speed. JPEG files typically end in the extension “.jpeg” or “.jpg.”

Exchequer, in British history, the government department that was responsible for receiving and dispersing the public revenue. The word derives from the Latin scaccarium, “chessboard,” in reference to the checkered cloth on which the reckoning of revenues took place. The Exchequer was constituted

government budget: The United Kingdom: …submitted to Parliament by the chancellor of the Exchequer, who is responsible for its preparation. The emphasis of the chancellor’s budget speech is on taxation and the state of the economy, rather than on the detail of expenditures; public discussion is devoted mainly to the chancellor’s tax proposals. The estimates…

Court of Common Pleas: …of King’s Bench and the Court of Exchequer for common-law business. The result was an accumulation of many complicated and overlapping jurisdictional rules. By the 19th century the multiple form of writs and competing jurisdictions had become unbearable, and the Judicature Act of 1873 brought about a replacement of the…

Aziz Sancar: …of an enzyme known as uvrABC nuclease (excision nuclease, or excinuclease) in E. coli. The enzyme specifically targeted DNA that had been damaged by UV or chemical exposure, cutting the affected DNA strand at each end of the damaged region and thereby enabling the removal of the damaged nucleotides.

sales tax: Sales and excise taxes in various countries: Excise tax revenue in most countries comes primarily from excises on automobiles, motor fuels, tobacco, and alcoholic beverages. Many other special excises are in use, such as taxes on coffee, sugar, salt, vinegar, matches, and amusements. Historically, communist countries derived…

female genital cutting: The procedure: Excision. Type 2 FGC involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora. It can also include the removal of the labia majora. Infibulation (also called Pharoanic circumcision). The vaginal opening is reduced by removing all or parts of the external…

Aziz Sancar: …of an enzyme known as uvrABC nuclease (excision nuclease, or excinuclease) in E. coli. The enzyme specifically targeted DNA that had been damaged by UV or chemical exposure, cutting the affected DNA strand at each end of the damaged region and thereby enabling the removal of the damaged nucleotides.

nucleic acid: Repair: …DNA lesions is by an excision repair pathway. Enzymes recognize damage within DNA, probably by detecting an altered conformation of DNA, and then nick the strand on either side of the lesion, allowing a small single-stranded DNA to be excised. DNA polymerase and DNA ligase then repair the single-stranded gap.…

cancer: Biopsy: In excisional biopsy the entire tumour is removed. This procedure is carried out when the mass is small enough to be removed completely without adverse consequences. Incisional biopsies, which remove only a piece of a tumour, are done if the mass is large. Biopsies obtained with…

nucleic acid: Site-specific recombination: A third protein, called excisionase, recognizes the hybrid sites formed on integration and, in conjunction with integrase, catalyzes an excision process whereby the λ chromosome is removed from the bacterial chromosome.

Warren Zevon: …That album was followed by Excitable Boy (1978), which featured the rollicking “Werewolves of London”—Zevon’s only major hit—as well as the geopolitically inspired songs “Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner” and “Lawyers, Guns and Money.”

nervous system: Stimulus-response coordination: …of the cell fluid called irritability. In simple organisms, such as algae, protozoans, and fungi, a response in which the organism moves toward or away from the stimulus is called taxis. In larger and more complicated organisms—those in which response involves the synchronization and integration of events in different parts…

excitation, in physics, the addition of a discrete amount of energy (called excitation energy) to a system—such as an atomic nucleus, an atom, or a molecule—that results in its alteration, ordinarily from the condition of lowest energy (ground state) to one of higher energy (excited state). In

excitation: …discrete amount of energy (called excitation energy) to a system—such as an atomic nucleus, an atom, or a molecule—that results in its alteration, ordinarily from the condition of lowest energy (ground state) to one of higher energy (excited state).

energy level: … higher energy levels are called excited states. See also Franck-Hertz experiment.

nervous system: Amino acids: Of the excitatory amino acid receptors, the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor has been thoroughly characterized. Patch-clamp studies show that this receptor is influenced by the presence of magnesium ions (Mg2+). In the absence of Mg2+, activated NMDA receptors open nonspecific cationic channels with no variation when the…

nervous system: Postsynaptic potential: …generated, it is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). Other neurotransmitters stimulate a net efflux of positive charge (usually in the form of K+ diffusing out of the cell), leaving the inside of the membrane more negative. Because this hyperpolarization draws the membrane potential farther from the threshold, making it…

energy level: … higher energy levels are called excited states. See also Franck-Hertz experiment.

sexual intercourse: In the excitement stage, the body prepares for sexual activity by tensing muscles and increasing heart rate. In the male, blood flows into the penis, causing it to become erect; in the female, the vaginal walls become moist, the inner part of the vagina becomes wider, and…

sexual intercourse: In the excitement stage, the body prepares for sexual activity by tensing muscles and increasing heart rate. In the male, blood flows into the penis, causing it to become erect; in the female, the vaginal walls become moist, the inner part of the vagina becomes wider, and…

electric generator: Field excitation: …another generator, known as an exciter, mounted on the same shaft. This may be a direct-current generator. In most modern installations, a synchronous generator is used as the exciter. For this purpose, the field windings of the exciter are placed on its stator and the phase windings on its rotor.…

exciton, the combination of an electron and a positive hole (an empty electron state in a valence band), which is free to move through a nonmetallic crystal as a unit. Because the electron and the positive hole have equal but opposite electrical charges, the exciton as a whole has no net electrical

radiation: Excitation states: …important of them are the exciton state, the polaron state, the charge-transfer (or charge-separated) state, and the plasmon state.

punctuation: Punctuation in Greek and Latin to 1600: …their modern names, and the exclamation mark, quotation marks, and the dash had been added to the system.

private good: …both excludable and rivalrous, where excludability means that producers can prevent some people from consuming the good or service based on their ability or willingness to pay and rivalrous indicates that one person’s consumption of a product reduces the amount available for consumption by another. In practice, private goods exist…

realism: Metaphysical realism and antirealism: …logical principles such as the law of excluded middle (for every proposition p, either p or its negation, not-p, is true, there being no “middle” true proposition between them) can no longer be justified if a strongly realist conception of truth is replaced by an antirealist one which restricts what…

insurance: Excluded perils: Among the excluded perils (or exclusions) of homeowner’s policies are the following: loss due to freezing when the dwelling is vacant or unoccupied, unless stated precautions are taken; loss from weight of ice or snow to property such as fences, swimming pools, docks,…

realism: Metaphysical realism and antirealism: …logical principles such as the law of excluded middle (for every proposition p, either p or its negation, not-p, is true, there being no “middle” true proposition between them) can no longer be justified if a strongly realist conception of truth is replaced by an antirealist one which restricts what…

insurance: Excluded perils: Among the excluded perils (or exclusions) of homeowner’s policies are the following: loss due to freezing when the dwelling is vacant or unoccupied, unless stated precautions are taken; loss from weight of ice or snow to property such as fences, swimming pools, docks,…

plant disease: Exclusion and avoidance: The principle of exclusion and avoidance is to keep the pathogen away from the growing host plant. This practice commonly excludes pathogens by disinfection of plants, seeds, or other parts, using chemicals or heat. Inspection and certification of seed and other planting stock help ensure freedom…

United Kingdom: The exclusion crisis and the Tory reaction: …when the Commons passed the Exclusion Bill, Charles dissolved Parliament and called new elections. These did not change the mood of the country, for in the second Exclusion Parliament (1679) the Commons also voted to bypass the duke of York in favour of his daughter Mary and William of Orange,…

gel chromatography, in analytical chemistry, technique for separating chemical substances by exploiting the differences in the rates at which they pass through a bed of a porous, semisolid substance. The method is especially useful for separating enzymes, proteins, peptides, and amino acids from

United Kingdom: The exclusion crisis and the Tory reaction: First he co-opted the leading exclusionists, including the earl of Shaftesbury, the earl of Halifax, and the earl of Essex, into his government, and then he offered a plan for safeguarding the church during his brother’s reign. But when the Commons passed the Exclusion Bill, Charles dissolved Parliament and called…

Pauli exclusion principle, assertion that no two electrons in an atom can be at the same time in the same state or configuration, proposed (1925) by the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to account for the observed patterns of light emission from atoms. The exclusion principle subsequently has been

combinatorics: The principle of inclusion and exclusion: derangements: This is the principle of inclusion and exclusion expressed by Sylvester.

papal conclave: History: …church had tacitly accepted a right of veto, or exclusion, in papal elections by the Catholic kings of Europe. Typically, a cardinal who was charged with the mission by his home government would inform the conclave of the inadmissability of certain papal candidates. The royal right of exclusion prevented the…

exclusionary rule, in U.S. law, the principle that evidence seized by police in violation of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution may not be used against a criminal defendant at trial. The Fourth Amendment guarantees freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures—that is, those made

Exclusive, in Australian history, member of the sociopolitical faction of free settlers, officials, and military officers of the convict colony of New South Wales, formed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Exclusives sought to exclude Emancipists (former convicts) from full civil

Chris Brown: …also released his second album, Exclusive, which was lauded for showcasing Brown’s growing maturity while still appealing to his target teen demographic. Exclusive featured collaborations with such big names as Lil Wayne and Kanye West, and its single “Kiss Kiss,” featuring singer-rapper T-Pain, reached the top of the Billboard Hot…

Alexander Hall: Early work: …explored the newspaper business in Exclusive (1937), a drama starring Fred MacMurray, Charles Ruggles, and Frances Farmer.

Exclusive, in Australian history, member of the sociopolitical faction of free settlers, officials, and military officers of the convict colony of New South Wales, formed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Exclusives sought to exclude Emancipists (former convicts) from full civil

Abu Dhabi: By the terms of the Exclusive Agreement of 1892, its foreign affairs were placed under British control. During the long rule of Sheikh Zayed ibn Khalifa (1855–1908), Abu Dhabi was the premier power of the Trucial Coast, but in the early 20th century it was outpaced by Sharjah and Dubai.…

Plymouth Brethren: …churches and were known as Exclusive Brethren; the others, called Open Brethren, maintained a congregational form of church government and less rigorous standards for membership. Exclusive Brethren have suffered further divisions.

disjunction: For clarity, exclusive disjunction (either x or y, but not both), symbolized x ⊻ y, must be distinguished from inclusive disjunction (either x or y, or both x and y), symbolized x ∨ y. See also implication.

exclusive economic zone (EEZ), as defined under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), an area of the ocean extending up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) immediately offshore from a country’s land coast in which that country retains exclusive rights to the exploration and

monotheism: Exclusive monotheism: For exclusive monotheism only one god exists; other gods either simply do not exist at all or, at most, are false gods or demons—i.e., beings that are acknowledged to exist but that cannot be compared in power or any other way with the…

Christianity: Contemporary views: According to exclusivism, there is salvation only for Christians. This theology underlay much of the history outlined above, expressed both in the Roman Catholic dogma extra ecclesiam nulla salus (“outside the church no salvation”) and in the assumption of the 18th- and 19th-century Protestant missionary movements. The…

excommunication, form of ecclesiastical censure by which a person is excluded from the communion of believers, the rites or sacraments of a church, and the rights of church membership but not necessarily from membership in the church as such. Some method of exclusion belongs to the administration

dermatillomania, psychiatric disorder in which an individual compulsively picks at their skin to the extent that it leads to tissue damage. Left untreated, the disorder can result in ulcerations, infections, and extensive scarring. Estimates suggest that roughly 2 to 5 percent of adolescents and

feces, solid bodily waste discharged from the large intestine through the anus during defecation. Feces are normally removed from the body one or two times a day. About 100 to 250 grams (3 to 8 ounces) of feces are excreted by a human adult daily. Normally, feces are made up of 75 percent water and

excretion, the process by which animals rid themselves of waste products and of the nitrogenous by-products of metabolism. Through excretion organisms control osmotic pressure—the balance between inorganic ions and water—and maintain acid-base balance. The process thus promotes homeostasis, the