Milan IV (or II) was a prince (1868–82) and then king (1882–89) of Serbia. Succeeding his cousin Prince Michael III of Serbia on July 2, 1868, Milan was dominated during the first years of his reign by a regency that adopted a seemingly liberal constitution in 1869, tried to develop close relations

Milan III (or I) was the prince of Serbia in 1839. On June 13, 1839, at age 19, Milan succeeded to the Serbian throne on the abdication of his father, Prince Miloš. Severely ill with tuberculosis, he took no part in government, which was managed by a three-man regency. After Milan died 25 days

Miloš was a Serbian peasant revolutionary who became prince of Serbia (1815–39 and 1858–60) and who founded the Obrenović dynasty. Miloš Teodorović, originally a herdsman, worked for his half brother Milan Obrenović, then joined Karadjordje, who was leading the Serbs in a rebellion against their

Obrenović dynasty, family that provided Serbia with five rulers between 1815 and 1903. Their succession was broken by a rival dynasty, the Karadjordjević. Miloš, who founded the dynasty, was prince of Serbia from 1815 to 1839 and again from 1858 to 1860; his elder son, Milan III, reigned for only

Avar, one of a people who, though likely originating in Mongolia, built an empire in the area between the Adriatic and the Baltic seas and between the Elbe and Dnieper rivers (6th–8th century). Inhabiting an area in the Caucasus region in 558, they intervened in Germanic tribal wars, allied with

Adam Zagajewski: …History, and the Imagination), and Obrona żarliwości (2002; A Defense of Ardor). Zagajewski gained notoriety in the United States when a translation of his poem “Try to Praise the Mutilated World” was published in The New Yorker shortly after the September 11 attacks of 2001. He received several notable literary…

José Donoso: …pajaro de la noche (1970; The Obscene Bird of Night), regarded as his masterpiece, presents a hallucinatory, often grotesque, world, and explores the fears, frustrations, dreams, and obsessions of his characters with profound psychological insight. In the novel Casa de campo (1978; A House in the Country), which Donoso considered…

Obscene Publications Act, in British law, either of two codifications of prohibitions against obscene literature adopted in 1857 and in much revised form in 1959. The earlier act, also called Lord Campbell’s Act (one of several laws named after chief justice and chancellor John Campbell, 1st Baron

obscenity, legal concept used to characterize certain (particularly sexual) material as offensive to the public sense of decency. A wholly satisfactory definition of obscenity is elusive, however, largely because what is considered obscene is often, like beauty, in the eye of the beholder. Although

José Donoso: …pajaro de la noche (1970; The Obscene Bird of Night), regarded as his masterpiece, presents a hallucinatory, often grotesque, world, and explores the fears, frustrations, dreams, and obsessions of his characters with profound psychological insight. In the novel Casa de campo (1978; A House in the Country), which Donoso considered…

Willa Cather: …themes can be found in Obscure Destinies (1932). With success and middle age, however, Cather experienced a strong disillusionment, which was reflected in The Professor’s House (1925) and her essays Not Under Forty (1936).

Roger Waters: Pink Floyd years: …such as Meddle (1971) and Obscured by Clouds (1972) saw artistic input from all the band members, Waters wrote all the lyrics for their 1973 album The Dark Side of the Moon, which was an instant hit that catapulted the band to worldwide fame. Waters continued to be the primary…

quantum mechanics: Axiomatic approach: …an axiomatic approach based on observables and states in a classic textbook entitled The Principles of Quantum Mechanics. (The book, published in 1930, is still in print.) An observable is anything that can be measured—energy, position, a component of angular momentum, and so forth. Every observable has a set of…

observable universe, the region of space that humans can actually or theoretically observe with the aid of technology. The observable universe, which can be thought of as a bubble with Earth at its centre, is differentiated from the entirety of the universe, which is the whole cosmic system of

Franciscan: History: …one order with the name Friars Minor of the Observance, and this order was granted a completely independent and autonomous existence. It is estimated that in 1517 the Observants numbered about 30,000, the Conventuals about 25,000.

Rudolf Carnap: Career in Vienna and Prague: …of operational definitions, and “observation sentences,” whose truth can be checked by direct observation. Carnap stressed that usually such tests cannot provide strict proof or disproof but only more or less strong “confirmation” for an empirical statement.

semantics: Verificationist semantics: …the logical positivists called “observation sentences,” whose meaning derives from their direct connection with experience and specifically from the fact that they are reports of experience. The meaning of an expression smaller than a sentence is similarly dependent on experience. Roughly speaking, the meaning of an expression is given…

motorcycle trial: …form of motorcycle trial includes observation trials, which are run over hazard-strewn terrain, often uphill, that has been divided into observed sections. The goal is to negotiate these sections without losing points for touching the ground with any part of the body (a “dab,” one point), touching twice or more…

operations research: Search problems: Observational errors, in turn, are of two general types: commission, seeing something that is not there; and omission, not seeing something that is there. In general, as the chance of making one of these errors is decreased, the chance of making the other is increased.…

observational learning, method of learning that consists of observing and modeling another individual’s behavior, attitudes, or emotional expressions. Although it is commonly believed that the observer will copy the model, American psychologist Albert Bandura stressed that individuals may simply

Thomas Sydenham: …fevers (1666), later expanded into Observationes Medicae (1676), a standard textbook for two centuries. His treatise on gout (1683) is considered his masterpiece.

Marianne Moore: …first American volume was titled Observations (1924). These initial collections exhibited Moore’s conciseness and her ability to create a mosaic of juxtaposed images that lead unerringly to a conclusion that, at its best, is both surprising and inevitable. They contain some of her best-known poems, including “To a Steam Roller,”…

Pierre Belon: In the resulting work, Les Observations de plusieurs singularitez et choses mémorables . . . (1553; “Observations of Several Curiosities and Memorable Objects . . .”), he described many animals, plants, drugs, customs, arts, and ruins previously unknown to Europeans and established an itinerary followed by scientific travelers for…

Sir Richard Hawkins: …English seaman and adventurer whose Observations in His Voyage Into the South Sea (1622) gives the best extant idea of Elizabethan life at sea and was used by Charles Kingsley for Westward Ho!.

Marshall Hall: …the practice of bloodletting in Observations on Blood-Letting (1830). In his Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the Blood (1831), he was the first to show that the capillaries bring the blood into contact with the tissues.

probability and statistics: The probability of causes: David Hartley announced in his Observations on Man (1749) that a certain “ingenious Friend” had shown him a solution of the “inverse problem” of reasoning from the occurrence of an event p times and its failure q times to the “original Ratio” of causes. But Hartley named no names, and…

John Brand: …folklore with the publication of Observations on Popular Antiquities: Including the Whole of Mr. Bourne’s Antiquitates Vulgares (1777).

John Strachey: He wrote Observations on the Different Strata of Earths and Minerals (1727) and stated that there was a relation between surface features and the rock structure, an idea that was not commonly accepted until a century later.

Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet: Pringle’s chief published work was Observations on the Diseases of the Army (1752). Medical procedures outlined in the book addressed problems of hospital ventilation and camp sanitation by advancing rules for proper drainage, adequate latrines, and the avoidance of marshes. He recognized the various forms of dysentery as one disease,…

William Cobbett: …traitor, Cobbett wrote a pamphlet, Observations on the Emigration of Joseph Priestley. It launched his career as a journalist. For the next six years he published enough writings against the spirit and practice of American democracy to fill 12 volumes. His violent journalism won him many enemies and the nickname…

Mercy Otis Warren: In 1788 she published Observations on the New Constitution, detailing her opposition to the document on account of its emphasis on a strong central government. Warren maintained social and political correspondences with her friends John and Abigail Adams. She wrote the latter about her belief that the relegation of…

Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine: Early life and career: His unsigned pamphlet, Observations on the Prevailing Abuses in the British Army (1772), gained a wide audience. Finding opportunities for advancement in the British army no more favourable than in the navy and encouraged by the friendly interest of Lord Mansfield, Erskine decided to enter the law. He…

Catharine Macaulay: Her last political tract, Observations on the Reflections of The Right Hon. Edmund Burke on the Revolution in France (1790), defended the French Revolution, finding the unicameral National Assembly superior even to the American polity.

Sir William Temple, Baronet: Temple’s Observations upon the United Provinces (1673) has been hailed by 20th-century scholars as a pioneer work in the sympathetic interpretation of the people of one country to those of another. The majority of his essays, however, were written after his retirement and collected for publication…

astronomical observatory, any structure containing telescopes and auxiliary instruments with which to observe celestial objects. Observatories can be classified on the basis of the part of the electromagnetic spectrum in which they are designed to observe. The largest number of observatories are

astronomical observatory: Known as Observatory House, its largest instrument had a mirror made of speculum metal, with a diameter of 122 cm (48 inches) and a focal length of 17 metres (40 feet). Completed in 1789, it became one of the technical wonders of the 18th century.

Seth Rogen: …cop in the dark comedy Observe and Report and then starred with Adam Sandler in Funny People, another collaboration with Apatow, about a friendship that blossoms between two comedians. He later appeared as the title character in the superhero film The Green Hornet (2011)—which he and Goldberg adapted from the…

Russell Baker: …1960s he began writing “The Observer” on the paper’s editorial page. In this syndicated humour column he initially concentrated on political satire, writing about the administrations of U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Richard M. Nixon. Moving to New York City in 1974, he found other…

astronomical map: Atlases for stargazing: The Observer’s Handbook, published annually by the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, lists valuable information for locating and observing a wide range of astronomical phenomena.

The Observer, Sunday newspaper established in 1791, the first Sunday paper published in Britain. It is one of England’s quality newspapers, long noted for its emphasis on foreign coverage. The paper devotes extensive space to the arts, government, education, and politics, and it has a worldwide

weather forecasting: Establishment of weather-station networks and services: Routine production of synoptic weather maps became possible after networks of stations were organized to take measurements and report them to some type of central observatory. As early as 1814, U.S. Army Medical Corps personnel were ordered to record weather data…

Beyoncé: Acting career and soundtracks: …Etta James, and the thriller Obsessed (2009) before providing the voice of a fairylike forest queen in the animated Epic (2013).

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), type of mental disorder in which an individual experiences obsessions or compulsions or both. Either the obsessive thought or the compulsive act may occur singly, or both may appear in sequence. Obsessions are recurring or persistent thoughts, images, or

history of film: Italy: >Obsession), a bleak contemporary melodrama shot on location in the countryside around Ferrara. It was suppressed by the fascist censors, however, so international audiences were first introduced to the movement through Roberto Rossellini’s Roma, città aperta (1945; Open City), which was shot on location in…

vampire: History: In 1991 Lori Herter published Obsession, one of the first vampire novels to be categorized as romance rather than science fiction, fantasy, or horror. Buffy the Vampire Slayer, a television show in which the title character has a star-crossed romance with a vampire, aired from 1997 to 2003. Vampire romances…

history of film: Italy: >Obsession), a bleak contemporary melodrama shot on location in the countryside around Ferrara. It was suppressed by the fascist censors, however, so international audiences were first introduced to the movement through Roberto Rossellini’s Roma, città aperta (1945; Open City), which was shot on location in…

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), type of mental disorder in which an individual experiences obsessions or compulsions or both. Either the obsessive thought or the compulsive act may occur singly, or both may appear in sequence. Obsessions are recurring or persistent thoughts, images, or

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), type of mental disorder in which an individual experiences obsessions or compulsions or both. Either the obsessive thought or the compulsive act may occur singly, or both may appear in sequence. Obsessions are recurring or persistent thoughts, images, or

mental disorder: Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: A person with this disorder shows prominent overscrupulous, perfectionistic traits that are expressed in feelings of insecurity, self-doubt, meticulous conscientiousness, indecisiveness, excessive orderliness, and rigidity of behavior. The person is preoccupied with rules and procedures as ends in themselves. Such persons tend…

Viktor Shklovsky: Petersburg, Shklovsky helped found OPOYAZ, the Society for the Study of Poetic Language, in 1914. He was also connected with the Serapion Brothers, a collection of writers that began meeting in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in 1921. Both groups felt that literature’s importance lay primarily not in its social content…

Russia: Emancipation and reform: …was the village commune (obshchina), an institution of uncertain origin but great antiquity, which had long had the power to redistribute land for the use of its members and to determine the crop cycle, but which now also became responsible for collecting taxes on behalf of the government.

mir, in Russian history, a self-governing community of peasant households that elected its own officials and controlled local forests, fisheries, hunting grounds, and vacant lands. To make taxes imposed on its members more equitable, the mir assumed communal control of the community’s arable land

Obshchy Syrt, highland area in the Trans-Volga region of Russia, forming the watershed between the Volga and the Ural rivers. In the Novouzensk region it reaches an elevation of 330–625 feet (100–190 metres), while farther to the east it rises to 920 feet (280 metres). Obshchy Syrt runs from the

obsidian, igneous rock occurring as a natural glass formed by the rapid cooling of viscous lava from volcanoes. Obsidian is extremely rich in silica (about 65 to 80 percent), is low in water, and has a chemical composition similar to rhyolite. Obsidian has a glassy lustre and is slightly harder

obsidian–hydration–rind dating, method of age determination of obsidian (black volcanic glass) that makes use of the fact that obsidian freshly exposed to the atmosphere will take up water to form a hydrated surface layer with a density and refractive index different from that of the remainder of

Gulf of Ob, large inlet of the Kara Sea indenting northwestern Siberia, between the peninsulas of Yamal and Gyda, in north-central Russia. The gulf forms the outlet for the Ob River, the delta of which is choked by a huge sandbar. The gulf is about 500 miles (800 km) in length and has a breadth

Peter Handke: …actor for a day, and Die Obstdiebin; oder, einfache Fahrt ins Landesinnere (2017; The Fruit Thief; or, One-Way Journey into the Interior).

obstetric fistula, abnormal duct or passageway that forms between the vagina and a nearby organ. This type of fistula most often forms either between the bladder and the vagina (vesicovaginal fistula) or between the rectum and the vagina (rectovaginal fistula). Obstetric fistulas frequently occur

obstetrics and gynecology, medical/surgical specialty concerned with the care of women from pregnancy until after delivery and with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the female reproductive tract. The medical care of pregnant women (obstetrics) and of female genital diseases (gynecology)

Sigbjørn Obstfelder was a Norwegian Symbolist poet whose unrhymed verse and atmospheric, unfocused imagery marked Norwegian poets’ decisive break with naturalistic verse. Most of Obstfelder’s works appeared in the 1890s: his first volume of poetry, Digte (1893; Poems); a play, De røde draaber

Rachid Boudjedra: In L’Escargot entêté (1977; The Obstinate Snail), a petty bureaucrat exposes his mediocre life and values, symbolizing the incompleteness of the Algerian revolution. With Les 1001 Années de la nostalgie (1979; “1,001 Years of Nostalgia”), Boudjedra created a satire of an imaginary Saharan village confronted with what he viewed…

Robert Mueller: Later work and Russia investigation: Concerning obstruction of justice, Barr quoted Mueller, who stated that “while this report does not conclude that the President committed a crime, it also does not exonerate him.” Barr went on to say that, in the absence of a legal conclusion from Mueller, he and Deputy…

Charles Stewart Parnell: The Home Rule League and the Land League: He embraced the policy of obstructing English legislation to draw attention to Ireland’s needs, and his handsome presence and commanding personality gave him a powerful appeal. In September 1877 the Home Rule Confederation of Great Britain elected Parnell its president. He had become, at age 31, the most conspicuous figure…

atelectasis: Obstructive atelectasis may be caused by foreign objects lodged in one of the major bronchial passageways, causing air trapped in the alveoli to be slowly absorbed by the blood. It may also occur as a complication of abdominal surgery. The air passageways in the lungs…

hydrocephalus: …outside the brain ventricles, or noncommunicating (also called obstructive hydrocephalus), in which the obstruction to the flow of CSF occurs within the ventricles. In rare cases communicating hydrocephalus arises from overproduction of CSF and thus does not involve a blockage of flow of the fluid. Hydrocephalus is often congenital, meaning…

digestive system disease: Jaundice: The third type, cholestatic, or obstructive jaundice, occurs when essentially normal liver cells are unable to transport bilirubin either through the capillary membrane of the liver, because of damage in that area, or through the biliary tract, because of anatomical obstructions (closure or absence of an opening, gallstones,…

sleep apnea: In obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), airway collapse is eventually terminated by a brief awakening, at which point the airway reopens and the person resumes breathing. In severe cases this may occur once every minute during sleep and in turn may lead to profound sleep disruption. In…

Dravidian languages: Proto-Dravidian Phonology: …Proto-Dravidian sound system has six obstruents, or stops (/p/, /t/, /d/, /ṭ/, /c/, /k/), an uncommon number. Obstruent sounds are produced by checking and releasing the airstream with the tip or blade of the tongue at different parts of the oral tract. They can be “voiced” (simultaneously accompanied by vibration…

insect: Types of larvae: …three types of pupae are: obtect, with appendages more or less glued to the body; exarate, with the appendages free and not glued to the body; and coarctate, which is essentially exarate but remaining covered by the cast skins (exuviae) of the next to the last larval instar (name given…

speech disorder: Cleft palate speech: …a special prosthetic plate (obturator) similar to false dental appliances. This technique has been known for many centuries, and various models of obturators have been constructed in the course of time. Cleft-palate care therefore includes the services of a prosthodontist (who makes false teeth) for the optimal construction of…

human nervous system: Lumbar plexus: An accessory obturator nerve supplies the pectineus muscle of the thigh and is sensory to the hip joint.

organized labour: Challenges to pure-and-simple unionism: This was the One Big Union (OBU), which had its roots in a postwar labour disaffection from conventional trade unionism that was especially pronounced in western Canada. Structured more along geographic than along the industrial-union lines of the IWW, the OBU had its moment of glory in the…

Obuasi, town, southern Ghana. It is located in a hilly area about 100 miles (160 km) from Accra. Its growth was stimulated by the discovery of a large gold deposit in 1897 and the building of the railway from Sekondi in 1902. The Asante gold mine at Obuasi remained the country’s major producer

Obuchi Keizo was a Japanese politician who was prime minister from July 1998 to April 2000 and is credited with reversing Japan’s economic downturn. Obuchi received a degree in English literature from Waseda University, Tokyo, in 1962. The following year, he won the seat his father had held in the

Bono: …in the gold-mining industry; both Obunumankoma (flourished c. 1450–75) and ʿAlī Kwame (flourished c. 1550–60) are thought to have introduced new mining techniques from the western Sudan to the Akan fields, and Owusu Aduam (flourished c. 1650) is reported to have completely reorganized the industry. From the Akan fields the…

obversion, in syllogistic, or traditional, logic, transformation of a categorical proposition (q.v.), or statement, into a new proposition in which (1) the subject term is unchanged, (2) the predicate is replaced by its contradictory, and (3) the quality of the proposition is changed from

obversion, in syllogistic, or traditional, logic, transformation of a categorical proposition (q.v.), or statement, into a new proposition in which (1) the subject term is unchanged, (2) the predicate is replaced by its contradictory, and (3) the quality of the proposition is changed from

Obwalden, Halbkanton (demicanton), central Switzerland, formerly part of the canton of Unterwalden. The demicanton is drained by the Sarner River and occupies the western part of former Unterwalden canton. Obwalden means “above the forest” and refers to the great forest of Kerns that divided the

Karel Čapek: …judgments; and Obyčejný život (1934; An Ordinary Life) explores the complex layers of personality underlying the “self” an “ordinary” man thinks himself to be.

Obshchy Syrt, highland area in the Trans-Volga region of Russia, forming the watershed between the Volga and the Ural rivers. In the Novouzensk region it reaches an elevation of 330–625 feet (100–190 metres), while farther to the east it rises to 920 feet (280 metres). Obshchy Syrt runs from the

history of Southeast Asia: Rise of indigenous states: …the most intriguing sites, called Oc Eo, is in the Mekong delta region of southern Vietnam. This port settlement, which flourished between the 1st and 6th centuries ce amid a complex of other settlements connected by canals (some up to 60 miles long), was not only an extraordinarily rich emporium…

Oxalidales: Oxalis tuberosa (oca) is cultivated in the Andes for its edible tubers; O. pes-caprae (Bermuda buttercup) also has tubers that can be used as a vegetable, although the plant is considered a weedy pest in many parts of the world.

Orthodox Church in America, ecclesiastically independent, or autocephalous, church of the Eastern Orthodox communion, recognized as such by its mother church in Russia; it adopted its present name on April 10, 1970. Established in 1794 in Alaska, then Russian territory, the Russian Orthodox mission

Ocala, city, seat (1846) of Marion county, north-central Florida, U.S., about 35 miles (55 km) southeast of Gainesville. It developed around Fort King (established in 1827), an important post during the Seminole Wars. The city’s name was derived from Ocali, the Timucua Indian name for the province

Abdullah Öcalan is the leader of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), a militant Kurdish nationalist organization, who became widely known as the strongest advocate for Kurdish sovereignty. As the PKK’s leader, Öcalan was also labeled a hero by some Kurds, a terrorist by most international

Czesław Miłosz: Miłosz’s collection Ocalenie (1945; “Rescue”) contained his prewar poems and those written during the occupation. In the same year, he joined the Polish diplomatic service and was sent, after briefly working during 1946 in the Polish embassy in New York City, to Washington, D.C., as cultural attaché,…

Orinoco River: Physiography of the Orinoco: …left bank and the Manaviche, Ocamo, Padamo, and Cunucunuma rivers on the right.

Armenia: …was founded in 1889 by Jesús María Ocampo and Antonio Herrera. Coffee, corn (maize), beans, sugarcane, silk, and plantains are marketed, and there is some light manufacturing. Coal deposits are nearby. Armenia is the seat of the University of Quindío (1960). Pop. (2003 est.) 303,939.

Adolfo Bioy Casares: …with his wife, the poet Silvina Ocampo, and Borges to edit Antología de la literatura fantástica (1940; “Anthology of Fantastic Literature”; Eng. trans. The Book of Fantasy) and Antología poética argentina (1941; “Anthology of Argentine Poetry”).

Gisèle Freund: …and Argentine writer and editor Victoria Ocampo, among many others. In May 1939 Freund’s portrait of Joyce appeared on the cover of Time magazine.

Ocaña, city, Norte de Santander departamento, northern Colombia, in the Hacarí valley. Founded (c. 1570) as Nueva Madrid by Francisco Fernández, the city was renamed for Ocaña in New Castile, Spain. An independence convention that was held there in 1828 is commemorated by a triumphal arch. Barium

Andes Mountains: Physiography of the Northern Andes: …of these chains is the Sierra de Ocaña, which on its northeastern side includes the Sierra de Perijá; the latter range forms a portion of the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela and extends as far north as latitude 11° N in La Guajira Peninsula. The eastern chain bends to the…

ocarina, globular flute, a late 19th-century musical development of traditional Italian carnival whistles of earthenware, often bird-shaped and sounding only one or two notes. It is an egg-shaped vessel of clay or metal or, as a toy, of plastic and is sounded on the flageolet, or fipple flute,

the Cars: …Massachusetts, by vocalist and guitarist Ric Ocasek, vocalist and bassist Benjamin Orr, guitarist Elliot Easton, keyboardist Greg Hawkes, and drummer David Robinson. The band’s steady stream of albums from 1978 to 1987 cemented them as one of the major pillars of the new wave rock movement from the late 1970s…

Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez is an American politician and activist who began representing New York’s 14th congressional district (NY-14) in 2019. Taking office at the age of 29, she became the youngest woman to serve in the U.S. Congress. Ocasio-Cortez identifies as a democratic socialist and is known

Karen Silkwood: Silkwood joined the Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers Union (OCAW) and, shortly after starting her job, participated in a nine-week union strike. As a member of the union’s bargaining committee, Silkwood began to monitor the plant’s health and safety practices, which she found lacking; spills, falsification of records,…

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), U.S. government bureau that regulates national banks and federal savings associations. The primary mission of the OCC is to ensure the safety and soundness of the national banking system. The OCC employs a staff of examiners who conduct onsite

Occam’s razor, principle stated by the Scholastic philosopher William of Ockham (1285–1347/49) that pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate, “plurality should not be posited without necessity.” The principle gives precedence to simplicity: of two competing theories, the simpler explanation of

William of Ockham was a Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of nominalism—the school of thought that denies that universal concepts such as “father” have any reality apart from the individual things signified by the

United Kingdom: Tories and Jacobites: …directed against Dissenters, including the Occasional Conformity Act (1711), which forbade Dissenters to circumvent the test acts by occasionally taking Anglican communion, and the Schism Act, which prevented them from opening schools (they were barred from Anglican schools and colleges). The Tories also concluded the War of the Spanish Succession.…