Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: The Hanoverian period of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: …Cognitione, Veritate et Ideis (Reflections on Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas) appeared at this time and defined his theory of knowledge: things are not seen in God—as Nicolas Malebranche suggested—but rather there is an analogy, a strict relation, between God’s ideas and those of humans, an identity between God’s logic…

aesthetics: The aesthetic experience: …Leibnizian philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in Meditationes Philosophicae de Nonnullis ad Poema Pertinentibus (1735; Reflections on Poetry). Baumgarten borrowed the Greek term for sensory perception (aisthēsis) in order to denote a realm of concrete knowledge (the realm, as he saw it, of poetry), in which a content is communicated in sensory…

Andrey Sakharov: …Sakharov finished his essay “Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom,” which first circulated as typewritten copies (samizdat) before being published in the West in The New York Times and elsewhere beginning in July. Sakharov warned of grave perils threatening the human race, called for nuclear arms reductions,…

Montesquieu: Major works of Montesquieu: …et de leur décadence (1734; Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans, 1734). He had thought of publishing the two together, thus following an English tradition, for, as Voltaire said, the English delighted in comparing themselves with the Romans.

Montesquieu: Major works of Montesquieu: …et de leur décadence (1734; Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans, 1734). He had thought of publishing the two together, thus following an English tradition, for, as Voltaire said, the English delighted in comparing themselves with the Romans.

Sadi Carnot: …à développer cette puissance (Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire), published in 1824, Carnot tackled the essence of the process, not concerning himself as others had done with its mechanical details.

Johann Winckelmann: …der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst (1755; Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks, 1765), in which he maintained, “The only way for us to become great, or even inimitable if possible, is to imitate the Greeks.” His essay became a manifesto of the Greek ideal in education and art…

Edmund Burke: Political life: …was provoked into writing his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) by a sermon of the Protestant dissenter Richard Price welcoming the Revolution. Burke’s deeply felt antagonism to the new movement propelled him to the plane of general political thought; it provoked a host of English replies, of which…

Harold Joseph Laski: In Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (1943) and Faith, Reason, and Civilization: An Essay in Historical Analysis (1944), he called for broad economic reforms.

Montesquieu: Major works of Montesquieu: …monarchie universelle en Europe (Reflections on Universal Monarchy in Europe), printed in 1734 but at once withdrawn, he was occupied with an essay on the English constitution (not published until 1748, when it became part of his major work) and with his Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur…

socialism: Syndicalism: …Réflexions sur la violence (1908; Reflections on Violence), in which he treated the general strike not as the inevitable result of social developments but as a “myth” that could lead to the overthrow of capitalism if only enough people could be inspired to act on it.

John Norris: …first major philosophical work was Reflections upon a Late Essay Concerning the Human Understanding (1690), in which he anticipated many later criticisms of John Locke’s theory contained in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding; he did, however, agree with Locke in dismissing the doctrine of innate ideas (which asserts that humans…

Ancients and Moderns: …to Temple’s charges in his Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1694). He praised the Moderns in most but not all branches of learning, conceding the superiority of the Ancients in poetry, art, and oratory. The primary points of contention were then quickly clouded and confused, but eventually two main…

ethics: Kantian constructivism: a middle ground?: …the metaethical implications of the method of reflective equilibrium in a later work, Political Liberalism (1993), describing it there as “Kantian constructivism.” According to Rawls, whereas intuitionism seeks rational insight into true ethical principles, constructivism searches for “reasonable grounds of reaching agreement rooted in our conception of ourselves and in…

coal: Reflectivity: …coal is its reflectivity (or reflectance)—i.e., its ability to reflect light. Reflectivity is measured by shining a beam of monochromatic light (with a wavelength of 546 nanometres) on a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals in a coal sample and measuring the percentage of the light reflected with a photometer.…

telescope: Reflecting telescopes: Reflectors are used not only to examine the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum but also to explore both the shorter- and longer-wavelength regions adjacent to it (i.e., the ultraviolet and the infrared). The name of this type of instrument is derived from…

nuclear reactor: Reflectors: A reflector is a region of unfueled material surrounding the core. Its function is to scatter neutrons that leak from the core, thereby returning some of them back into the core. This design feature allows for a smaller core size. In addition, reflectors “smooth…

mirror, any polished surface that diverts a ray of light according to the law of reflection. The typical mirror is a sheet of glass that is coated on its back with aluminum or silver that produces images by reflection. The mirrors used in Greco-Roman antiquity and throughout the European Middle

Arcade Fire: …Fire released the double album Reflektor in 2013. Influenced by Haitian and Jamaican dance music as well as by the film Black Orpheus (1959), Reflektor was coproduced by LCD Soundsystem leader James Murphy. Everything Now (2017) mined themes of media consumerism and existential anxiety. Though it was less well received…

reflex, in biology, an action consisting of comparatively simple segments of behaviour that usually occur as direct and immediate responses to particular stimuli uniquely correlated with them. Many reflexes of placental mammals appear to be innate. They are hereditary and are a common feature of

Dick Francis: Beginning with Reflex (1980), the story of a mediocre jockey facing the end of his career, Francis began to examine his protagonists’ inner torments. Critics welcomed this new subtlety. Later novels included Comeback (1991), Decider (1993), Come to Grief (1995), To the Hilt (1996), 10 Lb. Penalty

reflex arc, neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, an immediate response to a particular stimulus. The primary components of the reflex arc are the sensory neurons (or receptors) that receive stimulation and in turn connect to other nerve cells that activate muscle cells (or

functionalism: …of his keystone article, “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology” (1896), which attacked the philosophy of atomism and the concept of elementarism, including the behavioral theory of stimulus and response. The work of John Dewey and his associates stimulated the progressive-school movement, which attempted to apply functionalist principles to…

motion-picture camera: Most cameras now use the reflex system for viewing and focusing; in this system a mirror diverts to the viewfinder some of the light rays coming through the lens. Zoom lenses are commonly used on many cameras, as are ordinary wide-angle and telephoto lenses. The shutter is located behind the…

reflex arc, neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, an immediate response to a particular stimulus. The primary components of the reflex arc are the sensory neurons (or receptors) that receive stimulation and in turn connect to other nerve cells that activate muscle cells (or

Karel Appel: …and helped found the “Reflex” group, which became known as COBRA (for Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam), in 1948. He moved to Paris in 1950 and by the 1960s had settled in New York City; he later lived in Italy and Switzerland. Partly in reaction against what they perceived as…

human eye: Inhibition: In the central nervous system generally, the relay of impulses from one nerve cell, or neuron, to excite another is only one aspect of neuronal interaction. Just as important, if not more so, is the inhibition of one neuron by the discharge in another.…

human behaviour: The newborn infant: …weeks constitute what is called reflex smiling and usually occur without reference to any external source or stimulus, including other people. By two months, however, infants smile most readily in response to the sound of human voices, and by the third or fourth month they smile easily at the sight…

joint disease: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy—also called shoulder-hand syndrome because pain in the shoulder is associated with pain, swelling, and stiffness of the hand—only rarely develops in the wake of external injury. Most often it follows a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or is associated with…

stereotyped response: Reflex-like activities: Reflex-like activities of entire organisms may be unoriented or oriented. Unoriented responses include kineses—undirected speeding or slowing of the rate of locomotion or frequency of change from rest to movement (orthokinesis) or of frequency or amount of turning of the whole animal (klinokinesis),…

François VI, duc de La Rochefoucauld: The Maximes: …shorter pieces now known as Réflexions diverses. These, with the treaties and conventions that he may have drawn up personally, constitute his entire work, and of these only the Maximes stand out as a work of genius. Like his younger contemporary, Jean de La Bruyère, La Rochefoucauld was a man…

Unigenitus: …Quesnel contained in the book Réflexions morales, was issued at the request of the French king, Louis XIV, who wished to suppress the Jansenist faction. Louis was able to secure initial acceptance of the bull, but some French bishops (led by Louis-Antoine de Noailles, cardinal-archbishop of Paris) rejected it, and…

epigram: The Maximes (1665) of François VI, Duke de La Rochefoucauld marked one of the high points of the epigram in French, influencing such later practitioners as Voltaire. In England, John Dryden, Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift produced some of the most memorable epigrams of their time.

Sadi Carnot: …à développer cette puissance (Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire), published in 1824, Carnot tackled the essence of the process, not concerning himself as others had done with its mechanical details.

Joseph-Louis Lagrange, comte de l’Empire: In his long paper “Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations” (1770; “Reflections on the Algebraic Resolution of Equations”), he inaugurated a new period in algebra and inspired Évariste Galois to his group theory.

socialism: Syndicalism: …Réflexions sur la violence (1908; Reflections on Violence), in which he treated the general strike not as the inevitable result of social developments but as a “myth” that could lead to the overthrow of capitalism if only enough people could be inspired to act on it.

formal logic: Classification of dyadic relations: …itself is said to be reflexive; i.e., ϕ is reflexive if (∀x)ϕxx (example: “is identical with”). If ϕ never holds between any object and itself—i.e., if ∼(∃x)ϕxx —then ϕ is said to be irreflexive (example: “is greater than”). If ϕ is neither reflexive nor irreflexive—i.e., if (∃x)ϕxx ·

formal logic: Classification of dyadic relations: …itself is said to be reflexive; i.e., ϕ is reflexive if (∀x)ϕxx (example: “is identical with”). If ϕ never holds between any object and itself—i.e., if ∼(∃x)ϕxx —then ϕ is said to be irreflexive (example: “is greater than”). If ϕ is neither reflexive nor irreflexive—i.e., if (∃x)ϕxx ·

formal logic: Classification of dyadic relations: …itself is said to be reflexive; i.e., ϕ is reflexive if (∀x)ϕxx (example: “is identical with”). If ϕ never holds between any object and itself—i.e., if ∼(∃x)ϕxx —then ϕ is said to be irreflexive (example: “is greater than”). If ϕ is neither reflexive nor irreflexive—i.e., if (∃x)ϕxx ·

theatre: Other developments in the study of movement: The further elaborated discipline of reflexology, which seeks to analyze mind–body interaction, was developed by a variety of philosophers and psychologists and was very influential in the early years of the Soviet Union (see below Developments in Russia and the Soviet Union).

petroleum refining: Fractional distillation: …of the condensed liquid, called reflux, is pumped back into the top of the column and descends from tray to tray, contacting rising vapours as they pass through the slots in the trays. The liquid progressively absorbs heavier constituents from the vapour and, in turn, gives up lighter constituents to…

gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), relatively common digestive disorder characterized by frequent passage of gastric contents from the stomach back into the esophagus. The most common symptom of GERD is heartburn, a burning sensation in the chest and upper abdomen. Other symptoms may include

sedimentary rock: Dolomites and dolomitization: …entire process is named evaporative reflux. Penecontemporaneous dolomites would result from the positioning of sabkhas and arid supratidal flats in a site that is in immediate contact with carbonate sediment; diagenetic dolomites would logically result when such dolomite-producing settings overlie older limestone deposits. The presence of fissures or highly permeable…

reforestation, the conversion of previously forested land back to forest. Reforestation is an essential part of the ecological restoration of wild forests and is also used for more heavily managed lands, such as those used for paper production or timber. While a reforested area may not be as

Ottoman Empire: Reform efforts: The Ottoman reforms introduced during the 17th century were undertaken by Sultans Osman II (ruled 1618–22) and Murad IV (1623–40) and by the famous dynasty of Köprülü grand viziers who served under Mehmed IV (1648–87)—Köprülü Mehmed Paşa

Reform Bill, any of the British parliamentary bills that became acts in 1832, 1867, and 1884–85 and that expanded the electorate for the House of Commons and rationalized the representation of that body. The first Reform Bill primarily served to transfer voting privileges from the small boroughs

Inukai Tsuyoshi: …organized another new party, the Reform Club (Kakushin Kurabu), and the following year he again joined the cabinet, this time as minister of communications. In 1924, however, he destroyed this coalition government when he left it to join the Friends of Constitutional Government (Rikken Seiyūkai), the largest party in Japan;…

Reform Judaism, a religious movement that has modified or abandoned many traditional Jewish beliefs, laws, and practices in an effort to adapt Judaism to the changed social, political, and cultural conditions of the modern world. Reform Judaism sets itself at variance with Orthodox Judaism by

Union for Reform Judaism, oldest American federation of Jewish congregations, which, since its founding (1873) in Cincinnati, Ohio, has sponsored many programs to strengthen Jewish congregations and promote Jewish education on every level. Its headquarters are in New York City. The union was

social movement: Types of social movements: …a distinction implies that a reform movement advocates a change that will preserve the existing values but will provide improved means of implementing them. The revolutionary movement, on the other hand, is regarded as advocating replacement of existing values. Almost invariably, however, the members of a so-called revolutionary movement insist…

Reform Party, political movement in Canada West (later called Upper Canada from 1841 to 1867; now Ontario) and the Maritime Provinces that came into prominence shortly before 1837. Radical Reformers in Canada East (Lower Canada, 1841–67; now Quebec) were known as Patriotes. The Reformers urged that

Hundred Days of Reform, (1898), in Chinese history, imperial attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social system. It occurred after the Chinese defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and the ensuing rush for concessions in China on the part of Western imperialist powers. Following the

Rosa Luxemburg: …in Sozialreform oder Revolution? (1899; Reform or Revolution), in which she defended Marxist orthodoxy and the necessity of revolution, arguing that parliament was nothing more than a bourgeois sham. Karl Kautsky, the leading theoretician of the Second International, agreed with her, and revisionism consequently became a socialist heresy both in…

Ross Perot: …September 1995 Perot established the Reform Party, which he hoped to build into a major political party. The party’s broadly defined platform called for campaign reform, congressional term limits, balancing the federal budget, overhauling the health care and income tax systems, and placing restrictions on lobbying. Running as the Reform…

Reform Party, political movement in Canada West (later called Upper Canada from 1841 to 1867; now Ontario) and the Maritime Provinces that came into prominence shortly before 1837. Radical Reformers in Canada East (Lower Canada, 1841–67; now Quebec) were known as Patriotes. The Reformers urged that

New Zealand Political Reform League, conservative political party formed from various local and sectional organizations that took power in 1912, following a general election in 1911, and held control of the government until 1928. The Reform Party first acted as a united group in 1905, but it was

Canada: The administration of Brian Mulroney, 1984–93: The western-based Reform Party, a conservative populist party formed in 1987, obtained 52 seats, and the Quebec separatist Bloc Québécois, which had informal ties with the Parti Québécois, became the official opposition, with 54 seats.

reformatory, correctional institution for the treatment, training, and social rehabilitation of young offenders. In England in the mid-19th century, the House of Refuge movement prompted the establishment of the first reformatories, which were conceived as an alternative to the traditional practice

Fukko Shintō, school of Japanese religion prominent in the 18th century that attempted to uncover the pure meaning of ancient Shintō thought through philological study of the Japanese classics. The school had a lasting influence on the development of modern Shintō thought. Kada Azumamaro

Lisbon Treaty, international agreement that amended the Maastricht Treaty, Treaties of Rome, and other documents to simplify and streamline the institutions that govern the European Union (EU). Proposed in 2007, the Lisbon Treaty was ratified by most member states in 2008, but a referendum in

Germany: The 1860s: the triumphs of Bismarck: …Nationalverein (National Union) and the Reformverein (Reform Union) initiated agitation for a new federal union, the former advocating Prussian and the latter Austrian leadership. Liberal writers and politicians began to advance plans for the reform of the German Confederation. Some of the states, detecting a shift in public opinion, decided…

La Reforma: …civil war (known as the War of the Reform or Reform War), which was won by the liberal government by 1860. By the Laws of La Reforma (1859), church property, except for places of worship, was to be confiscated without compensation, monasteries were suppressed, cemeteries nationalized, and civil marriage instituted.…

Hundred Days of Reform, (1898), in Chinese history, imperial attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social system. It occurred after the Chinese defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and the ensuing rush for concessions in China on the part of Western imperialist powers. Following the

La Reforma, liberal political and social revolution in Mexico between 1854 and 1876 under the principal leadership of Benito Juárez. La Reforma period began with the issuance in 1854 of the Plan de Ayutla, a liberal pronouncement calling for the removal of the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna.

La Reforma: …civil war (known as the War of the Reform or Reform War), which was won by the liberal government by 1860. By the Laws of La Reforma (1859), church property, except for places of worship, was to be confiscated without compensation, monasteries were suppressed, cemeteries nationalized, and civil marriage instituted.…

La Reforma, liberal political and social revolution in Mexico between 1854 and 1876 under the principal leadership of Benito Juárez. La Reforma period began with the issuance in 1854 of the Plan de Ayutla, a liberal pronouncement calling for the removal of the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna.

Latin American architecture: Architecture of the new independent republics, c. 1810–70: The Paseo de la Reforma in Mexico City is said to be the first example of a Parisian boulevard in the New World. By the 1880s this form of urban renewal had been realized in Palermo Park and the Avenida de Mayo in Buenos Aires, the…

François Lambert: Encouraged by Philip, Lambert drafted Reformatio ecclesiarum Hassiae (“The Reformation of the Churches of Hesse”), which was submitted by Philip to the synod at Homberg (1526). Lambert’s document called for democratic principles of congregational representation in church government, by which pastors were to be elected by their congregations. He believed…

Reformation, the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century. Its greatest leaders undoubtedly were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Having far-reaching political, economic, and social effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one

Kaspar Schwenckfeld von Ossig: …representative of a phenomenon called Reformation by the Middle Way, and he established societies that survive in the United States as the Schwenckfelder Church.

Reformation Day, anniversary of the day Martin Luther is said to have posted his Ninety-five Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany (October 31, 1517), later identified by Protestants as the beginning of the Reformation. (See Researcher’s Note: The posting of the theses.)

United Kingdom: The break with Rome: The so-called Reformation Parliament that first met in November 1529 was unprecedented; it lasted seven years, enacted 137 statutes (32 of which were of vital importance), and legislated in areas that no medieval Parliament had ever dreamed of entering. “King in Parliament” became the revolutionary instrument by…

reformatory, correctional institution for the treatment, training, and social rehabilitation of young offenders. In England in the mid-19th century, the House of Refuge movement prompted the establishment of the first reformatories, which were conceived as an alternative to the traditional practice

library: Reformatting: In response to this problem, libraries have developed several preservation strategies. The most important method of preserving library materials has been reformatting. Brittle and crumbling books and photographs are preserved by photographing them on microfilm or, in some cases, by using scanners to create…

Debrecen: …the impressive Református Nagytemplom (Great Reformed Church). This parklike square is dominated by Kossuth’s statue. To the north of the church is Reformed College, a bastion of Calvinist scholarship since the late 16th century. Founded in the 16th century and known as Lajos Kossuth University for most of the…

Gregorian Reform: …popularity to the three-volume work La Réforme Grégorienne (1924–37) by Augustin Fliche, which placed the activities of Gregory VII in the context of church reform and emphasized the inappropriateness of the commonly used term investiture controversy as a description of the spiritual and intellectual reform movement of the second half…

Ernest Renan: Interest in politics: Thus, La Réforme intellectuelle et morale (1871), concerning intellectual and moral reform, argues that France, to achieve national regeneration, must follow the example set by Prussia after the Battle of Jena in 1806. By taking his advice, however, France would have become the sort of clerical…

Reformed and Presbyterian churches: Reformed churches in Germany: A Reformed Alliance was organized in Germany in 1884 to preserve the Reformed heritage. A synod held in Altona in January 1934 drew up a confessional statement in opposition to the German Christians’ corruption of the Gospel. This led to the Barmen Synod of May 1934,…

Reformed and Presbyterian churches, name given to various Protestant churches that share a common origin in the Reformation in 16th-century Switzerland. Reformed is the term identifying churches regarded as essentially Calvinistic in doctrine. The term presbyterian designates a collegial type of

Reformed church, any of several major representative groups of classical Protestantism that arose in the 16th-century Reformation. Originally, all of the Reformation churches used this name (or the name Evangelical) to distinguish themselves from the “unreformed,” or unchanged, Roman Catholic

Reformed Church in America, church that developed from the Dutch settlements in New Netherlands (New York) in the 17th century. The Dutch Reformed Church was the first Reformed church of continental European background in North America. During the period of Dutch sovereignty over New Netherlands,

Reformed Church in Hungary, Reformed church that developed in Hungary during and after the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. The influence of the Reformation was felt early in Hungary. A synod at Erdod adopted the Lutheran Augsburg Confession in 1545, and by 1567 the Synod of Debrecen adopted

Evangelical and Reformed Church: …in 1934 by uniting the Reformed Church in the United States and the Evangelical Synod of North America. The church brought together churches of Reformed and Lutheran background. It accepted the Heidelberg Catechism (Reformed), Luther’s Catechism, and the Augsburg Confession (Lutheran) as its doctrinal standards, but, when these differed, the…

Reformed Church of France, church organized in 1938 by merging several Reformed churches that had developed in France during and after the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. During the early part of the Reformation, Protestant movements made slow progress in France. Yet reforming movements within

Netherlands Reformed Church, Protestant church in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition, the successor of the established Dutch Reformed Church that developed during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. In 2004 it merged with two other churches—the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands

Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, Protestant church in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition organized in the Netherlands in 1892 through a merger of the Christian Reformed Church and a group of Reformed churches that were followers of Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920), a Dutch theologian and statesman.

Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated), Protestant church in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition that arose in the Netherlands in 1944 out of a doctrinal controversy within the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Nederlands Gereformeerde Kerken). Followers of Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920),

George David Cummins: …the first bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church.

Reformed League, voluntary association of German Reformed churches founded at Marburg in 1884 to aid Reformed churches and to conserve the Reformed heritage in Germany. It was organized by Reformed pastors and elders who met to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the birth of the Reformer Huldrych

Reformed church, any of several major representative groups of classical Protestantism that arose in the 16th-century Reformation. Originally, all of the Reformation churches used this name (or the name Evangelical) to distinguish themselves from the “unreformed,” or unchanged, Roman Catholic

Presbyterian Church in America: …PCA welcomed another denomination, the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod.

Reformed Church in America, church that developed from the Dutch settlements in New Netherlands (New York) in the 17th century. The Dutch Reformed Church was the first Reformed church of continental European background in North America. During the period of Dutch sovereignty over New Netherlands,

Reformed League, voluntary association of German Reformed churches founded at Marburg in 1884 to aid Reformed churches and to conserve the Reformed heritage in Germany. It was organized by Reformed pastors and elders who met to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the birth of the Reformer Huldrych

reforming, in chemistry, processing technique by which the molecular structure of a hydrocarbon is rearranged to alter its properties. The process is frequently applied to low-quality gasoline stocks to improve their combustion characteristics. Thermal reforming alters the properties of low-grade

Turkey: The ascendancy of the right, 1961–71: …new trade union federation, the Confederation of Reformist Workers’ Unions (Devrimci Işçi Sendıkalari Konfederasyonu [DİSK]; founded 1967); a revolutionary youth movement, Dev Genç (1969); a socialist political party, the Workers’ Party of Turkey (WPT; 1961); and an armed guerrilla movement, the Turkish People’s Liberation Army (1970). These and similar groups…

Germany: The 1860s: the triumphs of Bismarck: …Nationalverein (National Union) and the Reformverein (Reform Union) initiated agitation for a new federal union, the former advocating Prussian and the latter Austrian leadership. Liberal writers and politicians began to advance plans for the reform of the German Confederation. Some of the states, detecting a shift in public opinion, decided…

telescope: Refracting telescopes: Commonly known as refractors, telescopes of this kind are typically used to examine the Moon, other objects of the solar system such as Jupiter and Mars, and binary stars. The name refractor is derived from the term refraction

refraction, in physics, the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused by its change in speed. For example, waves travel faster in deep water than in shallow. If an ocean wave approaches a beach obliquely, the part of the wave farther from the beach will move faster

spectroscopy: Refraction: …prism itself, respectively, and the angles i and r are the angles that the ray of a given wavelength makes with a line at right angles to the prism face as shown in Figure 3, then the equation n1 sin i = n2 sin r is obtained for all rays.…

refractive index, measure of the bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. If i is the angle of incidence of a ray in vacuum (angle between the incoming ray and the perpendicular to the surface of a medium, called the normal) and r is the angle of refraction (angle