statistics: Decision analysis: …more possible future events, called states of nature, that might occur. The list of possible states of nature includes everything that can happen, and the states of nature are defined so that only one of the states will occur. The outcome resulting from the combination of a decision alternative and…

New York: Education of New York: A system called the University of the State of New York—one of the most comprehensive educational organizations in the world—governs all educational activities in the state. It was established in 1784 and its governance placed under a Board of Regents. In 1904 the state legislature made the Board of…

rugby: The modern era: In 1980 the State of Origin competition between New South Wales and Queensland began, and it soon became one of the most-watched sporting events in Australia. In England this model was followed through the creation of the Wars of the Roses series between Yorkshire and Lancashire.

Ben Affleck: Return to prominence: …Jennifer Aniston; the crime thriller State of Play; and the workplace satire Extract.

Qatar, independent emirate on the west coast of the Persian Gulf. The small country has tremendous influence as a trusted mediator between rivals in the region and as one of the world’s largest exporters of natural gas. It has also garnered international attention through its popular television

Rhode Island, constituent state of the United States of America. It was one of the original 13 states and is one of the six New England states. Rhode Island is bounded to the north and east by Massachusetts, to the south by Rhode Island Sound and Block Island Sound of the Atlantic Ocean, and to the

Costa-Gavras: …by État de siège (1972; State of Siege), which centers on an American adviser to the Uruguayan military regime who is kidnapped by revolutionaries.

Hillary Clinton: Secretary of state and 2016 presidential candidate: …turned to fiction writing with State of Terror, a collaboration with Canadian mystery writer Louise Penny. The geopolitical thriller centers on a female secretary of state who races to stop a nuclear attack.

prison: Emergence of the penitentiary: reformer John Howard, whose works The State of the Prisons in England and Wales (1777) and An Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe (1789) were based on extensive travels. The public outrage that Bentham and Howard helped generate led to a national system of inspection and the construction of…

State of the Union, in the United States, the annual address of the president of the United States to the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Constitution (Article II, Section 3) requires the president to “from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union.” Although the president now

Frank Capra: The 1940s: …MGM on his next project, State of the Union (1948), based on a Pulitzer Prize-winning Broadway satire by Howard Lindsay and Russell Crouse. In it Spencer Tracy portrayed a prospective presidential candidate, and Katharine Hepburn played his estranged wife. Although regarded by a number of critics as Capra’s last solid…

Nick Hornby: …epistolary memoir, and he wrote State of the Union (2019), about a married couple in counseling; the latter show featured 10-minute episodes.

Vatican City, landlocked ecclesiastical state, seat of the Roman Catholic Church, and an enclave in Rome, situated on the west bank of the Tiber River. Vatican City is the world’s smallest fully independent nation-state. Its medieval and Renaissance walls form its boundaries except on the southeast

Ann Patchett: Later novels and other works: …mortality are the focus of State of Wonder (2011), in which a pharmaceutical researcher travels to the Amazon Rainforest to investigate both the death of a colleague and a scientist’s work on an infertility drug. The Getaway Car: A Practical Memoir About Writing and Life (2011) was a short e-book.…

Berlin: Cultural life: …the long-established Deutsche Staatsoper (German National Opera). East Berlin’s Comic Opera also gained fame. Classical music in general finds a distinguished home in Berlin. Foremost among many notable musical ensembles is the world-famous Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, founded in 1882; it reached new heights in the second half of the…

Central Asian arts: Shamanic ritual: For example, the State Oracle of Tibet, a monk whose oracular powers were exercised on behalf of the government and the monastic system, was regarded as a high-ranking ecclesiastic, yet his ritualistic performances were no different than those of shamanic mediums throughout Central Asia. The adaptation of the…

diplomatics: The English royal chancery: …yet another new office, the State Paper Office, headed since 1578 by the clerk of the papers. The second holder of this office, Sir Thomas Wilson, established the division of the state papers into foreign and domestic. As departments of state proliferated during the 18th and 19th centuries, they developed…

Myanmar: Administrative framework: …1997 and 2011, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).

Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra, symphony orchestra based in St. Petersburg. The Philharmonic Society was founded there in 1802, and its orchestra included musicians from eastern Europe as well as from Russia. After the Russian Revolution of February 1917, the society’s orchestra became the

Gosplan, central board that supervised various aspects of the planned economy of the Soviet Union by translating into specific national plans the general economic objectives outlined by the Communist Party and the government. Established in February 1921, Gosplan was originally an advisory council

police: Federal and state police: …the early 20th century, some states began to create police forces, as other states (such as Texas and Massachusetts) had done on a smaller scale before then. In 1905 Pennsylvania established the first modern state police department. Formed with the professed purpose of fighting rural crime, state police in Pennsylvania…

GPU, early Soviet political police agency, a forerunner of the KGB

Ferrovie dello Stato (FS), largest railway system of Italy. FS operates lines on the mainland and also on the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, which are linked to the mainland by train ferries. The Italian railway system was nationalized in 1905. In 1986 its status was changed from a government

states’ rights: …closely related to that of state rights, which was invoked from the 18th century in Europe to legitimate the powers vested in sovereign national governments. Doctrines asserting states’ rights were developed in contexts in which states functioned as distinct units in a federal system of government. In the United States,…

Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS), special mobile French police force. It was created in 1944 as part of the Sûreté Nationale, which in 1966 was combined with the prefecture of police of Paris to form the Direction de la Sécurité Publique. This in turn was made part of the Police

intelligence: South Africa: …State Security—often referred to as BOSS—was an aggressive security service that placed agents in black communities, arrested dissidents, and assassinated real and suspected enemies of the regime. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, established after the peaceful transition to democratic rule in the 1990s and led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, brought…

KGB, foreign intelligence and domestic security agency of the Soviet Union. During the Soviet era the KGB’s responsibilities also included the protection of the country’s political leadership, the supervision of border troops, and the general surveillance of the population. Established in 1954, the

France: The judiciary: …from 1963 to 1981, the Court of State Security, which tried felonies and misdemeanours against national security. Very exceptionally, in cases of high treason, a High Court of Justice (Cour de Justice de la République), composed of members of the National Assembly and of senators, is empowered to try the…

Albania: The Stalinist state: …State Security, known as the Sigurimi. To eliminate dissent, the government periodically resorted to purges, in which opponents were subjected to public criticism, dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned in forced-labour camps, or executed. Travel abroad was forbidden to all but those on official business. In 1967 the religious establishment, which…

Stasi, secret police agency of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). The Stasi was one of the most hated and feared institutions of the East German communist government. The Stasi developed out of the internal security and police apparatus established in the Soviet zone of occupation in

MGB, former Soviet intelligence and counterintelligence agency, one of the forerunners of the KGB

intelligence: China: …is the province of the MSS. The organization of the MSS is similar to that of the former KGB, with bureaus responsible for foreign intelligence, counterintelligence, and the collection of scientific and technical intelligence. Chinese intelligence operations are conducted by officers under diplomatic cover as well as under nonofficial cover…

State Shintō, nationalistic official religion of Japan from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 through World War II. It focused on ceremonies of the imperial household and public Shintō shrines. State Shintō was founded on the ancient precedent of saisei itchi, the unity of religion and government.

Eleventh Amendment: …States establishing the principle of state sovereign immunity.

University of Southern Mississippi, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, U.S. It offers some 170 bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree programs. Degrees are conferred through colleges of the Arts, Business Administration, Education and Psychology,

College of New Jersey, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Ewing township, near Trenton, New Jersey, U.S. It comprises schools of Arts and Sciences, Business, Education, Nursing, and Engineering. More than 20 graduate programs leading to master’s degrees are offered through the

Indiana University of Pennsylvania, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Indiana, Pennsylvania, U.S. It is part of the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education. The university comprises the Eberly College of Business and colleges of Education, Fine Arts, Health and Human

terrorism: Types of terrorism: Establishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by governments—or more often by factions within governments—against that government’s citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups. This type of terrorism is very common but difficult to identify, mainly because…

South Australia: Transport: The State Transport Authority of South Australia operates a suburban passenger rail system within metropolitan Adelaide that is integrated with an extensive bus system and a streetcar line. Australia’s most innovative public transport facility, the German-designed O-Bahn guided busway, provides high-speed access via the Torrens Valley…

Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow art museum founded by Pavel M. Tretyakov in 1856. It contains the world’s finest collection of 17th- and 18th-century Russian icons, having more than 40,000 of them. (Read Sister Wendy’s Britannica essay on art appreciation.) There are also 18th-century portraits,

William Brennan: …cases; in his dissent in State v. Tune (1953), in which the defendant was denied a copy of the confession; and in Jencks v. United States (1957), in which Brennan gave the court’s opinion, establishing a defendant’s right to examine the reports of government witnesses. In his dissents in Ker…

control theory: Principles of control: …list of numbers (called the state vector) that expresses in quantitative form the effect of all external influences on the plant before the present moment, so that the future evolution of the plant can be exactly given from the knowledge of the present state and the future inputs. This situation…

phase: …altered to another form, a phase change is said to have occurred.

head of state, the highest representative of a sovereign state, who may or may not also be its head of government. The role of the head of state is primarily representative, serving to symbolize the unity and integrity of the state at home and abroad. The specific title of the head of state depends

Myanmar: Administrative framework: The Council of State, which consisted of 29 members (one representative elected from each of the country’s 14 states and divisions, 14 members elected by the People’s Assembly as a whole, and the prime minister as an ex officio member), elected its own secretary and its…

Cuba: Constitutional framework: …brief, twice-yearly sessions appoints the Council of State, which is headed by the president. The Council of State remains in session throughout the year and issues laws in the form of decrees. Elected by the National Assembly of People’s Power from among its representatives, the president is limited to two…

Japan: The Hōjō regency: …a Council of State (Hyōjō-shū). In 1232 the council drew up a legal code known as the Jōei Formulary (Jōei Shikimoku). Its 51 articles set down in writing for the first time the legal precedents of the bakufu. Its purpose was simpler than that of the ritsuryō, the old…

India: Constitutional reforms: …Assembly (lower house) and a Council of State (upper house). The Legislative Assembly, with 145 members, was to have a majority of 104 elected, while 33 of the Council of State’s 60 members were also to be elected. Enfranchisement continued to be based on property ownership and education, but under…

Portugal: Justice: …and replaced them with a Council of State and the Constitutional Tribunal. Members of the Council of State are the president of the republic (who presides over the council), the president of the parliament, the prime minister, the president of the Constitutional Tribunal, the attorney general, the presidents of the…

Suriname: Constitutional framework: …chairman of a nonelective, military-influenced Council of State, which ensures that the government’s actions conform to the law. It has constitutional powers to annul laws passed by the National Assembly. The judicial system consists of a Court of Justice and cantonal courts. Suriname is a member of the Caribbean Court…

Gustavus Adolphus: Resolution of internal problems: The Council of State became, for the first time, a permanent organ of government able to assume charge of affairs while the king was fighting overseas. An ordinance of 1617 fixed the number of estates in the Riksdag at four (nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants) and…

equation of state, an equation that relates the values of pressure, volume, and temperature of a given substance in thermodynamic equilibrium. The simplest known example of an equation of state is the one relating the pressure P, the volume V, and the absolute temperature T of one mole of an ideal

political system: Federal systems: In federal systems, political authority is divided between two autonomous sets of governments, one national and the other subnational, both of which operate directly upon the people. Usually a constitutional division of power is established between the national government, which exercises authority over…

head of state, the highest representative of a sovereign state, who may or may not also be its head of government. The role of the head of state is primarily representative, serving to symbolize the unity and integrity of the state at home and abroad. The specific title of the head of state depends

U.S. Department of State, executive division of the U.S. federal government responsible for carrying out U.S. foreign policy. Established in 1789, it is the oldest of the federal departments and the president’s principal means of conducting treaty negotiations and forging agreements with foreign

gas: Equation of state: …of 1/v, known as the virial equation of state:where B(T), C(T), . . . are called the second, third, . . . virial coefficients and depend only on the temperature and the particular gas. The virtue of this equation is that there is a rigorous connection between the virial coefficients…

Alfred B. Mullett: The State, War, and Navy Building is Mullett’s principal achievement. A massive structure in the Second Empire style, it was the largest office building in the world when completed. Steep mansard roofs with projecting dormers crown the building; the elaborate facade—no area is unadorned—is covered with…

Francis Fukuyama: He later wrote State-Building: Governance and the World Order in the 21st Century (2004), in which he discussed how fledgling democratic nations could be made to succeed.

terrorism: Types of terrorism: Establishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by governments—or more often by factions within governments—against that government’s citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups. This type of terrorism is very common but difficult to identify, mainly because…

Wei Yuan: …was a leader in the Statecraft school, which attempted to combine traditional scholarly knowledge with practical experience to find workable solutions to the problems plaguing the Chinese government. In 1826 he published the Huangchao jingshi wenbian (“Collected Essays on Statecraft Under the Reigning Dynasty”), a study of political and economic…

contingent valuation, a survey-based method of determining the economic value of a nonmarket resource. It is used to estimate the value of resources and goods not typically traded in economic markets. It is most commonly related to natural and environmental resources. Contingent valuation is

financial statement, any report of the financial condition or of the financial results of the operations of a business, a government, or other organization. The term is most often used in a more limited sense in trade and financial circles to refer to the balance sheet, statement of income, and

accounting: The statement of cash flows: Companies also prepare a third financial statement, the statement of cash flows. Cash flows result from three major aspects of the business: (1) operating activities, (2) investing activities, and (3) financing activities. These three categories are illustrated in Table 3.

Assemblies of God: Subsequently, however, a Statement of Fundamental Truths was adopted. The document demonstrated that the Assemblies of God are Trinitarian (believing in God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) and Arminian (accepting the doctrines of grace and free will as espoused by the 16th–17th-century Dutch theologian Arminius). They also…

accounting: The statement of cash flows: Companies also prepare a third financial statement, the statement of cash flows. Cash flows result from three major aspects of the business: (1) operating activities, (2) investing activities, and (3) financing activities. These three categories are illustrated in Table 3.

accounting: The statement of cash flows: Companies also prepare a third financial statement, the statement of cash flows. Cash flows result from three major aspects of the business: (1) operating activities, (2) investing activities, and (3) financing activities. These three categories are illustrated in Table 3.

Ashley Montagu: …this and subsequent versions as Statement on Race (1951; rev. ed., 1972). Montagu also wrote on such varied topics as human evolution, culture, and child care, and possibly his most influential work is The Natural Superiority of Women (1953). In 1999 a heavily revised edition of the book was published.…

Norman Jewison: In 2003 Jewison directed The Statement (2003), chronicling the real-life efforts of vigilantes and law-enforcement officials to capture a Vichy war criminal, played by Michael Caine.

Lawrence Weiner: …published the artist’s landmark book, Statements, a collection of 24 typewritten processes to follow in making a work of art. The book, which sold for $1.95 at Siegelaub’s gallery, had no illustrations, and some of the works described had not been produced. Weiner wrote the descriptions by using the past…

tunnels and underground excavations: Shaft sinking and drilling: …technique was in the 25-foot-diameter Statemine shaft in the Netherlands, 1,500 feet deep through soil that required about three and one-half years before completion in 1959. For the 1962 construction of some 200 missile shafts in Wyoming in soft rock (clay shale and friable sandstone), a giant auger proved effective…

Andes Mountains: Physiography of the Southern Andes: …Andes begin on the mountainous Estados (Staten) Island, the easternmost point of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago, reaching an elevation of 3,700 feet. They run to the west through Grande Island, where the highest ridges—including Mounts Darwin, Valdivieso, and Sorondo—are all less than 7,900 feet high. The physiography of this…

Staten Island, island and borough, New York City, southeastern New York state, U.S. The island lies in New York Harbor south of Manhattan and between New Jersey and Brooklyn. With several smaller islands it forms Richmond county and the Staten Island borough of New York City. Roughly triangular,

City University of New York, The: The College of Staten Island, formed in 1976 by the merger of Richmond College (founded 1965) and Staten Island Community College (1955), offers liberal arts and vocational programs. York College (1966) offers liberal arts. Lehman College, formerly Hunter College’s Bronx campus (opened 1931), joined CUNY in…

Rudolf Kjellén: …strong in Germany, where his Staten som livsform (1916; “The State as a Life-Form”) was widely read and where geopolitik took on an ideological meaning quite different from his social scientific concept.

Netherlands: Constitutional framework: The States General (Staten-Generaal), as the parliament is officially known, consists of two houses: the First Chamber (Eerste Kamer), or Senate, whose members are elected by the members of the councils of the 12 provinces; and the directly elected Second Chamber (Tweede Kamer), or House of…

States General, body of delegates representing the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic; 1579–1795). It is not to be confused with the present Netherlands parliament of the same name. The States General was instituted in the 15th century by the ruling dukes of Burgundy and was

museum: Museums of antiquities: …archaeological repository, as does the State Historical Museum in Stockholm, which houses material recovered as early as the 17th century. The national archaeological museum in Greece was started at Aeginia in 1829. Certain European countries, however—the United Kingdom and Germany, for example—do not have well-developed national collections of antiquities, and…

Netherlands: The Twelve Years’ Truce: …of the Bible (the famous States Bible, which consolidated the Dutch language much as the contemporary King James Version consolidated English). The triumph of Maurice and the Contra-Remonstrants meant that war with Spain would be a virtual certainty upon the expiration of the Twelve Years’ Truce in 1621—all the more…

States General, body of delegates representing the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic; 1579–1795). It is not to be confused with the present Netherlands parliament of the same name. The States General was instituted in the 15th century by the ruling dukes of Burgundy and was

Estates-General, in France of the pre-Revolution monarchy, the representative assembly of the three “estates,” or orders of the realm: the clergy (First Estate) and nobility (Second Estate)—which were privileged minorities—and the Third Estate, which represented the majority of the people. The

International Criminal Court: …countries are represented in the Assembly of States Parties, which oversees the activities of the ICC.

Madhya Pradesh: Madhya Pradesh since Indian independence: With the States Reorganization Act of 1956, Madhya Pradesh was redistributed along linguistic lines. The act transferred the southern Marathi-speaking districts of Madhya Pradesh to the Bombay state (now in Maharashtra) and merged several Hindi-speaking areas—the states of Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh, as well as most of…

states’ rights, the rights or powers retained by the regional governments of a federal union under the provisions of a federal constitution. In the United States, Switzerland, and Australia, the powers of the regional governments are those that remain after the powers of the central government have

Dixiecrat, member of a right-wing Democratic splinter group in the 1948 U.S. presidential election organized by Southerners who objected to the civil rights program of the Democratic Party. It met at Birmingham, Ala., and on July 17, 1948, nominated Gov. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for

South Sudan: Constitutional history: …Legislative Assembly (NLA) and the Council of States. Upon independence, the NLA body consisted of members of the previous regional legislative body, the South Sudan Legislative Assembly, and South Sudanese who had seats in Sudan’s National Assembly. The majority of NLA members were directly elected; the rest were elected from…

Rajya Sabha, the upper house of India’s bicameral legislature. The Rajya Sabha was designed by the framers of the Indian constitution as a check on the power of the Lok Sabha (“House of the People”), the legislature’s lower house. It represents the interests of the states and union territories. The

States General, body of delegates representing the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic; 1579–1795). It is not to be confused with the present Netherlands parliament of the same name. The States General was instituted in the 15th century by the ruling dukes of Burgundy and was

Netherlands: Constitutional framework: The States General (Staten-Generaal), as the parliament is officially known, consists of two houses: the First Chamber (Eerste Kamer), or Senate, whose members are elected by the members of the councils of the 12 provinces; and the directly elected Second Chamber (Tweede Kamer), or House of…

Plato: Late dialogues of Plato: …of the Sophist and the Statesman, to be treated by genus-species division, are important roles in the Greek city; and the Philebus is a consideration of the competing claims of pleasure and knowledge to be the basis of the good life. (The Laws, left unfinished at Plato’s death, seems to…

history of publishing: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan: …review for educated readers; the Statesman Weekly (founded 1924), an illustrated digest of Indian news and views; the monthly general review Current Events (founded 1955); Thought (New Delhi, 1949–78/79), a political and economic weekly; the monthly Akhand Anand (founded 1947); and the weekly Akashvani (founded 1936), Dharmayug (founded 1950), and…

encyclopaedia: Other topics: The Statesman’s Year-Book, important for its statistical and political information, began publication in 1864. In 1868 the English publisher Joseph Whitaker first issued his Whitaker’s Almanack, and the World Almanack started in the same year. The Chicago Daily News Almanac appeared from 1885 to 1946,…

The Statesman, English-language daily newspaper published in Kolkata and, with the Times of India and The Hindu, generally regarded as one of the most influential in India. It was established in 1875 by Robert Knight as an outgrowth of an earlier paper, The Friend of India (founded 1817). On

panopticon: For example, the Stateville Correctional Center, a prison near Joliet, Ill., U.S., incorporates essential features of the panopticon.

panopticon: For example, the Stateville Correctional Center, a prison near Joliet, Ill., U.S., incorporates essential features of the panopticon.

Statfjord, oil and gas field in the North Sea, shared by Norway and the United Kingdom. It lies about 112 miles (180 km) west of Sogn Fjord, on the western coast of Norway, and about 118 miles (190 km) northeast of the Shetland Islands. When Statfjord was discovered in 1974, it was the largest oil

The 2000s brought a new kind of action movie—bigger and louder with more special effects—as well as a new action star, Jason Statham. The English actor, a former diver and model, portrayed antiheroes in a number of blockbuster action-thrillers, notably those in the Expendables and the Fast and

Papal States, territories of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. Included were the modern Italian regions of Lazio (Latium), Umbria, and Marche and part of Emilia-Romagna, though the extent of the territory, along with the degree of papal control, varied over the

Papal States, territories of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. Included were the modern Italian regions of Lazio (Latium), Umbria, and Marche and part of Emilia-Romagna, though the extent of the territory, along with the degree of papal control, varied over the

Papal States, territories of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. Included were the modern Italian regions of Lazio (Latium), Umbria, and Marche and part of Emilia-Romagna, though the extent of the territory, along with the degree of papal control, varied over the

Sint Eustatius, island and special municipality within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is in the Lesser Antilles, in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, about 16 miles (26 km) southeast of Saba and 5 miles (8 km) northwest of the island of Saint Kitts. Its capital is Oranjestad. Sint Eustatius