surfing: Tow-in surfing: …the 1990s, is known as tow-in surfing, as the big-wave riders are towed, like water skiers, into the massive 40-foot (12-metre) waves that break on Hawaii’s outer reefs as well as elsewhere in the world. Brazilian Maya Gabeira became a notable figure in the sport beginning in the 2000s, and…

Lake Towada, lake, on the border of Aomori and Akita ken (prefectures), northern Honshu, Japan. Located in the northern extremity of the Ōu Range, the lake occupies a volcanic crater. It is 27 miles (44 km) in circumference and covers an area of 23 square miles (60 square km). Lake Towada is the

Lake Towada, lake, on the border of Aomori and Akita ken (prefectures), northern Honshu, Japan. Located in the northern extremity of the Ōu Range, the lake occupies a volcanic crater. It is 27 miles (44 km) in circumference and covers an area of 23 square miles (60 square km). Lake Towada is the

Bradford: The county seat is Towanda. The economy depends on manufacturing (metal products and photographic equipment) and agriculture (livestock, dairy products, and field crops). Area 1,151 square miles (2,980 square km). Pop. (2000) 62,761; (2010) 62,622.

Georg Elias Müller: …Göttingen in 1876 and wrote Toward a Foundation of Psychophysics (1878), in which he dealt primarily with Weber’s law concerning the stimulus–sensory intensity relationship. Initially he concerned himself mainly with perceptual thresholds. A noteworthy outcome was the knowledge that day-to-day fluctuations in individual thresholds are the result of individual variations…

As those in the movement to ban antipersonnel land mines celebrated the 20th anniversary of the Mine Ban Treaty of 1997, we recognized the fact that the accomplishments fueled by this “people’s movement”—the International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL)—were still a “success in progress.” (Read

Alain Robbe-Grillet: …(Pour un nouveau roman, 1963; Toward a New Novel; Essays on Fiction). Robbe-Grillet’s world is neither meaningful nor absurd; it merely exists. Omnipresent is the object—hard, polished, with only the measurable characteristics of pounds, inches, and wavelengths of reflected light. It overshadows and eliminates plot and character. The story is…

Abraham Maslow: …Motivation and Personality (1954) and Toward a Psychology of Being (1962), Maslow argued that each person has a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied, ranging from basic physiological requirements to love, esteem, and, finally, self-actualization. As each need is satisfied, the next higher level in the emotional hierarchy dominates…

futurology: …World War II, of which Toward New Horizons (1947) by Theodore von Kármán is an important example.

Karl Marx: Early years: …Kritik der Hegelschen Rechtsphilosophie” (“Toward the Critique of the Hegelian Philosophy of Right”) with its oft-quoted assertion that religion is the “opium of the people.” It was there, too, that he first raised the call for an “uprising of the proletariat” to realize the conceptions of philosophy. Once more,…

economics: Keynesian economics: With the publication of Towards a Dynamic Economics (1948), Harrod launched an entirely new specialty, “growth theory,” which soon absorbed the attention of an increasing number of economists.

Le Corbusier: Education and early years: …were collected and published as Vers une architecture. Later translated as Toward a New Architecture (1923), the book is written in a telling style that was to be characteristic of Le Corbusier in his long career as a polemicist. “A house is a machine for living in” and “a curved…

Fabianism: …1952, in his article “Towards a Philosophy of Socialism” in New Fabian Essays, Crossman disapproved of Laski’s efforts to merge Marxism and Fabianism. The Labour Party needed a sense of direction but not one influenced by Marxism, Crossman wrote, which forced policy into conformity with an imported rigid doctrine.…

Janet Frame: Towards Another Summer, an autobiographical novel Frame wrote in 1963 but deemed too personal for publication until after her death, was released in 2007. The highly private Frame legally changed her last name to Clutha in 1973 to make herself more difficult to locate. In…

E.J. Pratt: Pratt’s next work, Towards the Last Spike (1952), is a narrative of the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1870–85). His many awards included the highest civilian honour in Canada, the Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (1946).

Japanese literature: Kamakura period (1192–1333): …of travel is the superb Towazu-gatari (c. 1307; “A Story Nobody Asked For”; Eng. trans. The Confessions of Lady Nijō) by Lady Nijō, a work (discovered only in 1940) that provides a final moment of glory to the long tradition of introspective writing by women at court.

Toni Collette: …the dramas Evening (2007) and Towelhead (2007) and the horror film Fright Night (2011). She then starred in the offbeat Australian comedy Mental (2012) before playing Alfred Hitchcock’s personal assistant in the biographical Hitchcock (2012).

tower, any structure that is relatively tall in proportion to the dimensions of its base. It may be either freestanding or attached to a building or wall. Modifiers frequently denote a tower’s function (e.g., watchtower, water tower, church tower, and so on). Historically, there are several types

dress: Europe, 1500–1800: Ladies wore a tall headdress—the fontange—consisting of tiers of wired lace decorated by ribbons and lappets.

Tower Bridge, movable bridge of the double-leaf bascule (drawbridge) type that spans the River Thames between the Greater London boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Southwark. It is a distinct landmark that aesthetically complements the Tower of London, which it adjoins. The bridge was completed in 1894.

buttress: …of buttresses include pier or tower buttresses, simple masonry piles attached to a wall at regular intervals; hanging buttresses, freestanding piers connected to a wall by corbels; and various types of corner buttresses—diagonal, angle, clasping, and setback—that support intersecting walls.

Tower Hamlets, inner borough of London, England, extending eastward from the Tower of London and including most of the East End of Inner London. The meandering River Thames forms the southern boundary, the City of London lies to the west, Hackney is to the north, and Newham lies beyond the River

Casey Affleck: …films included the action comedy Tower Heist (2011), the period romance Ain’t Them Bodies Saints (2013), and the science fiction film Interstellar (2014).

cave: Cone and tower karst: This variety of karst landscape occurs mainly in tropical areas. Thick limestones are divided into blocks by a grid of joints and fractures. Solution produces deep rugged gorges along the joints and fractures, dividing the mass of limestone into isolated blocks. Because the…

beer: Modernization: Tower maltings have been developed with an uppermost floor for steeping and lower floors for germination and kilning, producing a compact, semicontinuous operation that is also fully automated.

windmill: …and gearing in a fixed tower. This has a movable top, or cap, which carries the sails and can be turned around on a track, or curb, on top of the tower. The earliest-known illustration of a tower mill is dated about 1420. Both post and tower mills were to…

Pieter Bruegel, the Elder: Artistic evolution and affinities of Pieter Bruegel, the Elder: …in the two paintings of The Tower of Babel (one 1563, the other undated). The Rotterdam Tower of Babel illustrates yet another characteristic of Bruegel’s art, an obsessive interest in rendering movement. It was a problem with which he constantly experimented. In the Rotterdam painting, movement is imparted to an…

Auto-da-Fé, novel by Elias Canetti, published in 1935 in German as Die Blendung (“The Deception”). It was also published in English as The Tower of Babel. Originally planned as the first in a series of eight novels examining mad visionaries, the book deals with the dangers inherent in believing

Tower of Hanoi, puzzle involving three vertical pegs and a set of different sized disks with holes through their centres. The Tower of Hanoi is widely believed to have been invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas, though his role in its invention has been disputed. Ever popular,

Rick Riordan: …The Tyrant’s Tomb (2019), and The Tower of Nero (2020).

dakhma, (Avestan: “tower of silence”), Parsi funerary tower erected on a hill for the disposal of the dead according to the Zoroastrian rite. Such towers are about 25 feet (8 m) high, built of brick or stone, and contain gratings on which the corpses are exposed. After vultures have picked the

Mi Fu: Works: Mi’s paintings, such as Tower of the Rising Clouds, represented a break with the past. Before the period of the Song dynasty, landscape painting in China had depended essentially on line for its description of the world. Mi, however, was concerned with depicting the misty rivers and hills of…

Toyo Ito: …tower into the visually stunning Tower of the Winds (1986) by covering the structure with a perforated aluminum plate and hundreds of lights that were configured to respond to wind speed and sound waves. By day the plate reflected the sky, but at night the tower “came alive” as the…

pound: …the earliest of these, the Tower pound, so called because its standard was kept in the Royal Mint in the Tower of London, was applied to precious metals and drugs and contained 5,400 grains, or 0.350 kg, whereas the mercantile pound contained 6,750 grains, or 0.437 kg. The troy pound,…

Franklin Hiram King: …scientist, inventor of the cylindrical tower silo. He also invented a gravity system of ventilation for dairy barns that was widely used until electrically powered blowers became commonly available.

Joan Tower is an American composer, pianist, and conductor who is chiefly known for her colorful and often whimsical orchestral compositions. Tower began playing the piano when she was six years old. At age nine she moved to Bolivia with her father, who was a geologist and mining engineer. While

Ronald Reagan: The Iran-Contra Affair of Ronald Reagan: …commission, headed by former senator John Tower of Texas (the Tower Commission), to investigate the matter. An independent counsel, Judge Lawrence Walsh, was also appointed, and the House and Senate began joint hearings to examine both the arms sales and the military assistance to the Contras. As a result of…

William Butler Yeats: The Tower (1928), named after the castle he owned and had restored, is the work of a fully accomplished artist; in it, the experience of a lifetime is brought to perfection of form. Still, some of Yeats’s greatest verse was written subsequently, appearing in The…

Tower of London, royal fortress and London landmark. Its buildings and grounds served historically as a royal palace, a political prison, a place of execution, an arsenal, a royal mint, a menagerie, and a public records office. It is located on the north bank of the River Thames, in the extreme

film: Hollywood genres: …which included Earthquake [1974] and The Towering Inferno [1974]), but even lasting genres go through phases of popularity. The western, for example, was well established as a genre by the 1920s. It was particularly strong in the late 1940s and early ’50s but not during the ’30s. It resurged in…

The Raj Quartet: …Day of the Scorpion (1968), The Towers of Silence (1971), and A Division of the Spoils (1975), is set in India during the years leading up to that country’s independence from the British raj (sovereignty). The story examines the role of the British in India and the effect of their…

towhee, (genus Pipilo), any of several North American birds in the family Emberizidae, order Passeriformes, that are long-tailed skulkers in thickets, where they are rarely seen but are often heard noisily scratching for food on the ground. Their name is from the call of the eastern, or

tractor, high-power, low-speed traction vehicle and power unit mechanically similar to an automobile or truck but designed for use off the road. The two main types are wheeled, which is the earliest form, and continuous track. Tractors are used in agriculture, construction, road building, etc., in

Katherine Amelia Towle was an American educator and military officer who became the first director of women’s marines when the regular U.S. Marine Corps integrated women into their ranks. Towle graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1920. After several years as an administrator

town, human settlement that is smaller than a city but bigger than a village. The word town comes from the Old English tūn, which had a variety of meanings, among them “enclosure” and “group of houses.” A town can be categorized according to its function—such as commercial, administrative, and

Jack Kerouac: On the Road and other early work: ” His first published novel, The Town & the City (1950), received favourable reviews but was considered derivative of the novels of Thomas Wolfe, whose Time and the River (1935) and You Can’t Go Home Again (1940) were then popular. In his novel Kerouac articulated the “New Vision,” that “everything…

history of publishing: Literary and scientific magazines: …Journal (1846–1901; then continuing as Town and Country) introduced Swinburne and Balzac to Americans, while Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (New York City, 1850; later called Harper’s Magazine), founded by the book-publishing Harper brothers, serialized many of the great British novels and became one of America’s finest quality magazines. It was…

urban planning: The era of industrialization: …saw the passage of Britain’s first town-planning act and, in the United States, the first national conference on city planning, the publication of Burnham’s plan for Chicago, and the appointment of Chicago’s Plan Commission (the first recognized planning agency in the United States, however, was created in Hartford, Connecticut, in…

Western architecture: Scandinavia: …were echoed in the celebrated Town Hall at Stockholm, designed in 1908 by Ragnar Östberg and executed in 1911–23. In Finland, Lars Sonck worked in an Arts and Crafts Gothic style reminiscent of the work of the American Henry Hobson Richardson—e.g., his Tampere Cathedral (1902–07) and Telephone Exchange, Helsinki (1905).

Western architecture: Flanders and Holland: …Flemish Renaissance style was the Stadhuis, or Town Hall (1561–65), at Antwerp, designed by Loys du Foys and Nicolo Scarini and executed by Cornelis II Floris (originally de Vriendt [1514–75]). It was decided to replace Antwerp’s small medieval town hall with a large structure, 300 feet (90 metres) long, in…

Western architecture: From the 19th to the early 20th century: …of the Gothic Revival, Manchester Town Hall, was won in competition in the same year as the Law Courts, 1866, and begun in 1869. The designer was Alfred Waterhouse, an architect almost as active as Street but one who was responsible for very few churches. Waterhouse demonstrated conclusively that, because…

Brussels: Centuries of occupation: …itself: near the marketplace, the Town Hall (1402–54) rose proudly, with its tall perforated steeple surmounted by a statue of the archangel Michael, the city’s patron saint. Various Gothic churches and cathedrals and the ducal Coudenberg Palace (destroyed in the 18th century), with its extensive park, added to the architectural…

Western architecture: Scandinavia: such as Martin Nyrop’s Copenhagen Town Hall (1892–1902), which combined Northern Renaissance features with a crenellated Gothic skyline. Its fine craftsmanship and delicate eclecticism were echoed in the celebrated Town Hall at Stockholm, designed in 1908 by Ragnar Östberg and executed in 1911–23. In Finland, Lars Sonck worked in an…

Rembrandt: Fourth Amsterdam period (1658–69) of Rembrandt: …Amsterdam Town Hall, now the Royal Palace, which had an extensive decoration program. This would contain a great number of large history pieces painted by different masters. Rembrandt was not invited, but his former pupil Flinck received the most prestigious of these commissions: he was commissioned to paint a series…

Annapolis, capital of the U.S. state of Maryland and seat of Anne Arundel county. The city lies along the Severn River at its mouth on Chesapeake Bay, 27 miles (43 km) southeast of Baltimore. Settled in 1649 as Providence by Virginian Puritans, it later was known as Town Land at Proctor’s and Anne

Nevil Shute: A Town Like Alice (1950) dealt with the Pacific theatre of World War II.

town meeting, in the United States, an assembly of local qualified voters in whom is vested the governmental authority of a town. Town meetings are a particularly popular form of governmental administration in New England, where a town is a geographic unit, the equivalent of a civil township

urban planning, design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different activities within it. Because urban planning draws upon engineering, architectural, and social and political

José Luis Sert: …1956 was a partner in Town Planning Associates, a New York City firm that engaged in city planning and urban design for a number of new or existing South American cities, including Bogotá and other Colombian cities, Chimbote in Peru, Ciudad dos Motores in Brazil, and Havana. Sert’s master plans…

Gene Pitney: …other writers, such as “Town Without Pity” and Burt Bacharach and Hal David’s “The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance”; the latter rendition rose to number four in the American pop charts in 1962. Pitney also reached the Top Ten with “Only Love Can Break a Heart” (1962), “It Hurts…

University of Edinburgh, coeducational, privately controlled institution of higher education at Edinburgh, one of the most noted of Scotland’s universities. It was founded in 1583 as “the Town’s College” under Presbyterian auspices by the Edinburgh town council under a charter granted in 1582 by

Alexander Jackson Davis: …came to know the architect Ithiel Town, whose partner he became in 1829. The firm of Town and Davis designed many public buildings in the Greek Revival style, including the Indiana State Capitol (1831–35) in Indianapolis, the North Carolina State Capitol (1833–40) in Raleigh, and the West Presbyterian Church (1831–32)…

The Town, novel by William Faulkner, published in 1957. It is the second work in the Snopes family trilogy, which includes The Hamlet (1940) and The Mansion (1959). A dramatization of Faulkner’s vision of the disintegration of the South after the Civil War, The Town relates through three narrators

Ben Affleck: Film directing: …next effort behind the camera, The Town (2010), casting himself as the head of a crew of Boston bank robbers. Affleck later directed and starred in Argo (2012), the true story of a fake film production that provided cover for a CIA rescue mission during the Iran hostage crisis. For…

The Town, novel by Conrad Richter, published in 1950. The third book in a trilogy that includes The Trees and The Fields, The Town was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1951. The three books were published in a single volume as The Awakening Land in 1966. The trilogy, which is set in the

Laura Matilda Towne was an American educator known for founding one of the earliest and most successful of the freedmen’s schools for former slaves after the American Civil War. Towne studied homeopathic medicine privately and probably attended the short-lived Penn Medical University for a time;

Warren Beatty: …in, produced, and wrote with Robert Towne. In it, Beatty plays a womanizing hairdresser who finds it impossible to juggle all his lovers on the eve of Pres. Richard Nixon’s election in 1968. Even more successful was Heaven Can Wait (1978), a showcase vehicle for Beatty’s comedic talents. For this…

Wakefield plays, a cycle of 32 scriptural plays, or mystery plays, of the early 15th century, which were performed during the European Middle Ages at Wakefield, a town in the north of England, as part of the summertime religious festival of Corpus Christi. The text of the plays has been preserved

Steve Earle: …tribute to Van Zandt, titled Townes, earned him another Grammy Award for best contemporary folk album.

Charles Hard Townes was an American physicist, joint winner (with the Soviet physicists Aleksandr M. Prokhorov and Nikolay G. Basov) of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1964 for his role in the invention of the maser and the laser. Townes studied at Furman University (B.A., B.S., 1935), Duke

Will Smith: DJ Jazzy Jeff and Fresh Prince: …alliance with schoolmate and deejay Jeffrey Townes, whom he met in 1981. They began recording as DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince and released their first single, “Girls Ain’t Nothing but Trouble,” in 1986, later followed by the album Rock the House. In 1988 the group released the groundbreaking…

radiation measurement: Proportional counters: …of electrons is called a Townsend avalanche and is triggered by a single free electron. The total number of electrons produced in the avalanche can easily reach 1,000 or more, and the amount of charge generated in the gas is also multiplied by the same factor. The Townsend avalanche takes…

Social Security Act: …the early 1930s joined nationwide Townsend clubs, promoted by Francis E. Townsend to support his program demanding a $200 monthly pension for everyone over the age of 60. In 1934 Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt set up a committee on economic security to consider the matter; after studying its recommendations, Congress…

Townsend family, American cabinetmakers working in Newport, Rhode Island, during the 17th and 18th centuries and forming with the Goddard family the Goddard-Townsend group, known for case furniture characterized by block fronts and decorative carved shell motifs, frequently in the graceful and

Pinnacles National Park: …mountain lions, tarantulas, and the Townsend’s big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii) are among the wildlife found there.

Townsend family: …Townsend (1699–1765) and his brother Christopher Townsend (1701–73) were the first generation involved in cabinetmaking. Job’s daughter married John Goddard, then his apprentice and the first of the Goddard family associated with the Townsends. The only known piece bearing Job’s label is a desk-bookcase at the Rhode Island School of…

Fannie Lou Hamer was an African American civil rights activist who worked to desegregate the Mississippi Democratic Party. The youngest of 20 children, Fannie Lou was working the fields with her sharecropper parents at the age of six. Amid poverty and racial exploitation, she received only a

United States: The second New Deal and the Supreme Court: Many older people supported Francis E. Townsend’s plan to provide $200 per month for everyone over age 60. At the same time, conservatives, including such groups as the American Liberty League, founded in 1934, attacked the New Deal as a threat to states’ rights, free enterprise, and the open…

Goddard Family: …younger brother James worked for Job Townsend. Shortly after they married Townsend’s daughters, John established his own workshop, and by the 1760s he had become Newport’s leading cabinetmaker, being commissioned by such eminent early Americans as Gov. Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island and the famous philanthropist Moses Brown. In contrast…

Townsend family: Christopher’s son John Townsend (1732–1809), recognized as one of the outstanding craftsmen of the group, was held by the British for several weeks in 1777 and is believed to have worked in Connecticut after his release, returning to Newport in 1782. About nine pieces bearing his label…

children’s literature: Contemporary times: Such novels as John Rowe Townsend’s Gumble’s Yard (1961); Widdershins Crescent (1965); Pirate’s Island (1968); Eve Garnett’s Further Adventures of the Family from One End Street (1956); and Leila Berg’s Box for Benny (1958) represented a new realistic school, restrained in England, less so in the United States,…

Princess Margaret: Peter Townsend, a war hero who had served as an equerry to her father. Their romance became public knowledge when Margaret was seen brushing lint off Townsend’s jacket at her sister’s coronation in 1953. Although Townsend and Margaret wished to marry, the fact that he…

Sir John Sealy Townsend was an Irish physicist who pioneered in the study of electrical conduction in gases and made the first direct measurement of the unit electrical charge (e). In 1895 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a research student at the Cavendish Laboratory under J.J.

Sir John Sealy Townsend was an Irish physicist who pioneered in the study of electrical conduction in gases and made the first direct measurement of the unit electrical charge (e). In 1895 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a research student at the Cavendish Laboratory under J.J.

Townshend Acts, (June 15–July 2, 1767), in colonial U.S. history, series of four acts passed by the British Parliament in an attempt to assert what it considered to be its historic right to exert authority over the colonies through suspension of a recalcitrant representative assembly and through

Townshend Acts, (June 15–July 2, 1767), in colonial U.S. history, series of four acts passed by the British Parliament in an attempt to assert what it considered to be its historic right to exert authority over the colonies through suspension of a recalcitrant representative assembly and through

shearwater: Townshend’s shearwater (P. auricularis) and the Balearic shearwater (P. mauretanicus), both also 33 cm in length, are classified as critically endangered in the IUCN Red List. Townshend’s shearwater faces the greatest threat of extinction of all shearwaters, because it breeds in a single location, Socorro…

Charles Townshend was a British chancellor of the Exchequer whose measures for the taxation of the British American colonies intensified the hostilities that eventually led to the American Revolution. The second son of the 3rd Viscount Townshend, he was educated at Cambridge and Leyden. In 1747 he

Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend was a Whig statesman who directed British foreign policy from 1721 to 1730. He succeeded his father, Horatio Townshend, as viscount in 1687, and in 1714 King George I appointed him a secretary of state. The temperamental Townshend soon came into conflict

caricature and cartoon: 18th century: …the 1760s by the Englishman George Townshend (later Marquess Townshend), these were comic portraits with punning titles or accessories, intended by disingenuous means to avoid being outright libellous. A flood of imitations followed. Soon Townshend’s cards became comic illustrations in magazines such as The London Magazine, the Political Register, and…

Pete Townshend is a British guitarist and singer-songwriter best known as the lead guitarist and principal songwriter for the British rock band the Who. Townshend’s evocative songwriting has earned him a reputation as an inventive and intellectual rock music composer. Townshend was the first child

Pete Townshend is a British guitarist and singer-songwriter best known as the lead guitarist and principal songwriter for the British rock band the Who. Townshend’s evocative songwriting has earned him a reputation as an inventive and intellectual rock music composer. Townshend was the first child

Colmar, baron von der Goltz: …the 143-day siege of General Sir Charles Townshend’s British contingent at Kut (1915–16).

Cape Town: The people of Cape Town: …reservation of certain areas for residence and occupation by specific racial groups within the population. The act brought about many changes in Cape Town’s residential areas; for example, a mixed but predominantly Coloured neighbourhood known as District Six, south of the Castle, was cleared by bulldozers. Special legislation permitted Coloureds…

township, unit of government found primarily in the northeast and north central United States; it is a subdivision of a county and is usually 36 square miles (about 93 square kilometres) in area. The term civil township is sometimes used to distinguish it from the congressional, or survey, township

Bulgaria: Local government: Township councils embody state power at the local government level. The members of the township councils are elected by the inhabitants of the township to four-year terms. Executive power at the level of local government lies with the elected mayor of a township. Between the…

Mbongeni Ngema: …Ngema to write the musical Township Fever.

South Africa: Music: Township music, a lively form of music that flourished in the townships during the apartheid era, has also been popular within the country and abroad.

Townsville, city and major port, eastern Queensland, Australia, at the mouth of Ross Creek on Cleveland Bay of the Coral Sea. Founded in 1864 and named after Robert Towns, it was gazetted a town in 1865 and served as a centre for trade with the Pacific Islands. Proclaimed a municipality in 1866, it

canals and inland waterways: Towpaths: Originally provided for animal haulage, towpaths were adapted on many French canals for mechanical and electrical haulage until the general use of powered craft terminated this service in 1969. But the towpaths are still useful: in addition to providing ways for some local haulage…