xerophyte, any plant adapted to life in a dry or physiologically dry habitat (salt marsh, saline soil, or acid bog) by means of mechanisms to prevent water loss or to store available water. Succulents (plants that store water) such as cacti and agaves have thick, fleshy stems or leaves. Other

connective tissue disease: Sjögren syndrome: …dryness of the mouth (xerostomia), often coupled with enlargement of the salivary glands; and rheumatoid arthritis. Sometimes the dryness of the eyes and mouth is associated with other connective tissue diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, polyarteritis nodosa, dermatomyositis, or scleroderma, rather than with rheumatoid arthritis. Sjögren syndrome is…

global warming: Climatic variation since the last glaciation: …sometimes referred to as the Mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum. The relative warmth of average near-surface air temperatures at this time, however, is somewhat unclear. Changes in the pattern of insolation favoured warmer summers at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, but these changes also produced cooler winters in the Northern Hemisphere…

Xerox, major American corporation and brand that was a pioneer in office technology, notably being the first to manufacture xerographic plain-paper copiers. Headquarters are in Norwalk, Connecticut. The company was founded in 1906 as the Haloid Company, a manufacturer and distributor of

Xerox, major American corporation and brand that was a pioneer in office technology, notably being the first to manufacture xerographic plain-paper copiers. Headquarters are in Norwalk, Connecticut. The company was founded in 1906 as the Haloid Company, a manufacturer and distributor of

PARC, research company established in 1970 as a division of Xerox Corporation in Palo Alto, California, U.S., to explore new information technologies that were not necessarily related to the company’s core photocopier business. Many innovations in computer design were developed by PARC researchers,

PARC, research company established in 1970 as a division of Xerox Corporation in Palo Alto, California, U.S., to explore new information technologies that were not necessarily related to the company’s core photocopier business. Many innovations in computer design were developed by PARC researchers,

graphical user interface: PARC: …a computer workstation called the Xerox Star, which was introduced in 1981. Though the process was expensive, the Star (and its prototype predecessor, the Alto) used a technique called “bit mapping” in which everything on the computer screen was, in effect, a picture. Bit mapping not only welcomed the use…

ground squirrel: Nontropical ground squirrels: …and the four species of African ground squirrels (genus Xerus) inhabit savannas and rocky deserts in northern, eastern, and southern Africa. Central Asia’s sandy deserts are home to the single species of long-clawed ground squirrel (genus Spermophilopsis), whereas the deserts of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico are populated…

Xerxes I was a Persian king (486–465 bce), the son and successor of Darius I. He is best known for his massive invasion of Greece from across the Hellespont (480 bce), a campaign marked by the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea. His ultimate defeat spelled the beginning of the decline of

ancient Iran: Artaxerxes I to Darius III: Xerxes II (425–424), and Darius II Ochus (423–404)—were all comparatively weak as individuals and as kings, and such successes as the empire enjoyed during their reigns were mainly the result of the efforts of subordinates or of the troubles faced by their adversaries. Artaxerxes I…

Xerxes I was a Persian king (486–465 bce), the son and successor of Darius I. He is best known for his massive invasion of Greece from across the Hellespont (480 bce), a campaign marked by the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea. His ultimate defeat spelled the beginning of the decline of

deathwatch beetle, (Xestobium rufovillosum), an anobiid, or borer insect, of the family Anobiidae (insect order Coleoptera) that makes a ticking or clicking sound by bumping its head or jaws against the sides of the tunnels as it bores in old furniture and wood. According to superstition, the

Chefchaouene, town, northern Morocco, situated in the Rif mountain range. Founded as a holy city in 1471 by the warrior Abū Youma and later moved by Sīdī ʿAlī ibn Rashīd to its present site at the base of Mount El-Chaouene, it became a refuge for Moors expelled from Spain. A site long closed to

Vince McMahon: …announced the creation of the Extreme Football League (XFL). While many questioned the move, citing the failure of past ventures to compete with the NFL, McMahon displayed his signature bravado and marketing muscle, slamming the NFL as dull and calling it the “No Fun League.” He promised a faster and…

Xg blood group system, classification of human blood based on the presence of proteins called Xg antigens on the surfaces of red blood cells. The Xg blood group system is the only blood group in which the antigen-encoding genes are located on the X chromosome. Discovery of the system in 1962

Xg blood group system: …consists of one identifiable antigen, Xga; two phenotypes, Xg(a+) and Xg(a−); and a pair of alleles, Xga, which is dominant to Xg. This blood group follows the pattern for sex-chromosome inheritance: daughters may receive a gene for Xga from either the mother or the father, but sons may only inherit…

Xhosa, a group of mostly related peoples living primarily in Eastern Cape province, South Africa. They form part of the southern Nguni and speak mutually intelligible dialects of Xhosa, a Bantu language of the Niger-Congo family. In addition to the Xhosa proper, for whom the entire group was named,

Xhosa language, a Bantu language spoken by seven million people in South Africa, especially in Eastern province. Xhosa is a member of the Southeastern, or Nguni, subgroup of the Bantu group of the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Other Southeastern Bantu languages are Zulu,

Ciskei, former republic (though never internationally recognized as such) and Bantustan that was inhabited principally by Xhosa-speaking people in Southern Africa. It bordered the Indian Ocean on the southeast and was bounded by the Republic of South Africa on the southwest, northwest, and

Wenwang was the father of Ji Fa (the Wuwang emperor), the founder of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 bc) and one of the sage rulers regarded by Confucian historians as a model king. Wen was the ruler of Zhou, one of the semibarbaric states on the western frontier of China, long a battleground between

Fengfayao: …the 4th century ce by Xi Chao, who, though a Daoist, was a great admirer of Buddhism. One of the earliest discourses on the subject by a non-Buddhist, it is regarded as a milestone in the advance of Buddhist thought in China. Although it contains some erroneous interpretations of Buddhist…

Korea Bay, inlet that forms the northeastern arm of the Yellow Sea between the Liao-tung Peninsula (in Liaoning province), China, and western North Korea. Korea Bay receives three of the major rivers of North Korea—the Yalu (which rises on Mount Paektu and forms much of the China–North Korea

Xi River system, system of rivers that combine to form the longest river of southern China. Together with its upper-course streams, the Xi River flows generally eastward for 1,216 miles (1,957 km) from the highlands of Yunnan province to the South China Sea and drains—along with the Bei, Dong, and

Xi Jin, first phase of the Jin dynasty (265–420 ce), ruling China from 265 to 316/317 and constituting one of the Six

Xi Jinping is a Chinese politician and government official who has served as the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since 2012 and as the president of the People’s Republic of China since 2013. Previously he served as China’s vice president (2008–13). Xi Jinping was the son of

Ji Kang was a Chinese Daoist philosopher, alchemist, and poet who was one of the most important members of the free-spirited, heavy-drinking Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, a coterie of poets and philosophers who scandalized Chinese society by their iconoclastic thoughts and actions. Of

Zhejiang: Cultural life: The Xi (West) Lake in Hangzhou is considered one of the most scenic places in the country, combining both natural and architectural beauty. The lake is surrounded by hills on three sides, while springs, ponds, dams, bridges, islets, pavilions, terraces, and towers are scattered at various…

Yelü Dashi: …first emperor (1124–43) of the Xi (Western) Liao dynasty (1124–1211) of Central Asia.

Yelü Dashi was the founder and first emperor (1124–43) of the Xi (Western) Liao dynasty (1124–1211) of Central Asia. Yelü was a member of the imperial family of the Liao dynasty (907–1125), which had been established by the Khitan (Chinese: Qidan) tribes and ruled much of Mongolia and Manchuria

Berlin 1936 Olympic Games, athletic festival held in Berlin that took place August 1–16, 1936. The Berlin Games were the 10th occurrence of the modern Olympic Games. The event was held in a tense, politically charged atmosphere, occurring just two years after Adolf Hitler became Führer. His regime

Sapporo 1972 Olympic Winter Games, athletic festival held in Sapporo, Japan, that took place Feb. 3–13, 1972. The Sapporo Games were the 11th occurrence of the Winter Olympic Games. After two unsuccessful attempts to secure the Olympics, Sapporo was finally awarded the 1972 Winter Games, and the

Xi River system, system of rivers that combine to form the longest river of southern China. Together with its upper-course streams, the Xi River flows generally eastward for 1,216 miles (1,957 km) from the highlands of Yunnan province to the South China Sea and drains—along with the Bei, Dong, and

Hong Kong literature: Xi Xi (Zhang Yan) was arguably the greatest female writer from Hong Kong. She often depicted urban life, and Hong Kong was a prominent part of her novel Wo cheng (1979; My City) and the series of stories about the allegorical “Fertile Town” (Feitu Zhen).…

Xi Xia, kingdom of the Tibetan-speaking Tangut tribes that was established in 1038 and flourished until 1227. It was located in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi. Occupying the area along the trade route between Central Asia and Europe, the Tangut were content

Li Yuanhao was the leader of the Tangut (Chinese: Dangxiang) tribes, a people who inhabited the northwestern region of China in what are now parts of Gansu and Shaanxi provinces and the Ningxia Hui and Inner Mongolia autonomous regions. Li founded the Xia (or Daxia) dynasty (1038–1227), usually

Gong Li: …san de Baigu Jing (2016; The Monkey King 2) and the Disney movie Mulan (2020).

Xi Jinping: Early life: …Jinping was the son of Xi Zhongxun, who once served as deputy prime minister of China and was an early comrade-in-arms of Mao Zedong. The elder Xi was often out of favor with his party and government, however, especially before and during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) and after he openly…

education: Xi (Western) Zhou (1046–771 bce): This was the feudal age, when the feudal states were ruled by lords who paid homage to the king of Zhou and recognized him as the “Son of Heaven.”

Xi’an, city and capital of Shaanxi sheng (province), north-central China. It is located in the south-central part of the province, at the southern limit of the Loess Plateau. The city site is on a low plain on the south bank of the Wei River. Just to the south the Qin (Tsingling) Mountains rise

Xi’an Incident, (Dec. 12–25, 1936), in Chinese history, seizure of the Nationalist generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) by two of his own generals, Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsüeh-liang) and Yang Hucheng (Yang Hu-ch’eng). Zhang, commander of the forces in Northeast China (Manchuria), and Yang,

Xi’an monument, inscribed stone monument that records the early missionary activity of Nestorian Christians in China. It was discovered by Jesuit missionaries in 1625 in the province of Shaanxi, China. The monument, constructed in 781, bears an inscription written in Chinese and signed in Syriac by

submarine: Strategic submarines: The Xia class, as it was called by NATO, was armed with 12 JL-1 missiles (NATO designation CSS-N-3), which had a range of 1,500 nautical miles (2,800 km). The Type 092 program was followed in 2004 by the launching of the first vessel of the Type…

Xia dynasty, (c. 2070–c. 1600 bce), early Chinese dynasty mentioned in legends. According to legend, the founder was Yu, who was credited with having engineered the draining of the waters of a great flood (and who was later identified as a deified lord of the harvest). Yu allegedly made the

Xia Gui was one of China’s greatest masters of landscape painting, cofounder with Ma Yuan of the Ma-Xia school. The album leaf and the hand scroll with a continuous panorama were his predominant forms. His works are typically in ink monochrome, occasionally with a few touches of colour. His style

Qijia culture: …Chinese archaeologists Pei Wenzhong and Xia Nai. More sites associated with the Qijia culture were later found in Qinghai province and in the Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia.

Xia Gui: Influence and assessment of Xia Gui: Xia Wenyan, in Tuhui Baojian (1365), wrote of him in more positive terms:

Xia Yan was a Chinese writer, journalist, and playwright known for his leftist plays and films. Xia was sent to study in Japan in 1920, and, after his forced return to China in 1927, he joined the Chinese Communist Party. In 1929 he founded the Shanghai Art Theatre, was the first to call for a

Yichang, city, western Hubei sheng (province), China. It extends along the left bank of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), at a point marking the division between the river’s middle and lower courses. A number of hills rise directly behind the city, and the small island of Xiba forms a harbour in the

Tadeusz Miciński: …apocalyptic visions of his novel Xiądz Faust (1913; “Father Faust”), Miciński predicted that Polish-Russian brotherhood would come about through revolution. At the end of World War I, Miciński was assassinated in the chaos of the Russian Revolution while he was helping to organize the Polish armed forces.

Nanjing: The early empires: …wealth to Nanjing, especially to Xiaguan. Weaving, pottery, printing, and brocade making were the leading industries. Oceangoing vessels used by Zheng He in his famous 15th-century expeditions to the South Seas were built in the shipyards to the northwest of the city. An imperial college—the Guozijian—attracted students from throughout the…

Dali, city, western Yunnan sheng (province), southwestern China. It is situated at the southern end of Lake Er in a fertile basin about 10 miles (16 km) southeast of the historical town of Dali. The city has traditionally been an important centre on the routes westward from Kunming (the provincial

Xiamen, city and port, southeastern Fujian sheng (province), China. It is situated on the southwestern coast of Xiamen (Amoy) Island in Xiamen Harbour (an inlet of the Taiwan Strait), the estuary of the Jiulong River. Known as the “garden on the sea,” it has an excellent harbour sheltered by a

China: Sino-Tibetan of China: …and by the Xiamen-Shantou (Amoy-Swatow), or Southern Min, language of southern Fujian and easternmost Guangdong. The Hakka language of southernmost Jiangxi and northeastern Guangdong has a rather scattered pattern of distribution. Probably the best known of these southern dialects is Yue, particularly Cantonese, which is spoken in central and…

Xiamen: The contemporary city: …institutions of higher education is Xiamen University, which was founded in 1921 by Tan Kah Kee (Chen Jiageng), a patriotic overseas Chinese entrepreneur. Gulang Island, with its beautiful scenery, fine beaches, and notable architecture, and the Jimei District on the mainland opposite Xiamen Island, known for it gardens and historic…

hsien, the basic unit of local government in China. The word hsien may be roughly translated as “county,” or “district.” The hsien originated during the Ch’un-ch’iu, or Spring and Autumn, period (770–476 bc) of Chinese history. Villages or townships on China’s western frontier that had been newly

yan, type of ancient Chinese bronze steamer, or cooking vessel, used particularly for grain. It consisted of a deep upper bowl with a pierced bottom, which was placed upon or attached to a lower, legged vessel similar in shape to the li. It was produced during the Shang, or Yin (18th–12th century

xian, in Chinese Daoism, an immortal who has achieved divinity through devotion to Daoist practices and teachings. Early Daoist sages, including Zhuangzi, referred perhaps allegorically to immortal beings with magical powers; some followers interpreted these references literally and devoted

Xi’an, city and capital of Shaanxi sheng (province), north-central China. It is located in the south-central part of the province, at the southern limit of the Loess Plateau. The city site is on a low plain on the south bank of the Wei River. Just to the south the Qin (Tsingling) Mountains rise

Zhao Youqin: …second extant book of Zhao, Xian Fo tongyuan (“On the Common Origins of [the Teachings of] Transcendentals and Buddhas”), is devoted to the so-called “Inner Alchemy,” an esoteric discipline focusing on the attainment of immortality via respiratory and meditative practices. He designed several astronomical instruments; he used one of these…

Xi’an Incident, (Dec. 12–25, 1936), in Chinese history, seizure of the Nationalist generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) by two of his own generals, Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsüeh-liang) and Yang Hucheng (Yang Hu-ch’eng). Zhang, commander of the forces in Northeast China (Manchuria), and Yang,

Mongolia: Ethnography and early tribal history: …important tribal groups are the Sienpi (Xianbi), who may however have been Tungus-speakers rather than Mongol, recorded in Han dynasty annals, and the Juan-juan (Rouran, or Geougen) of the 4th to 6th centuries. The latter have been identified by some scholars with the Avars, who migrated into Europe along the…

Chinese literature: 1927–37: …Li Jinfa, poets published in Xiandai (“Contemporary Age”), a Shanghai literary magazine. The latter wrote very sophisticated, if frequently baffling, poetry in the manner of the French Symbolists.

Kailushen, in Chinese religion, a deity (shen) who sweeps away evil spirits (guei) that may be lurking along a road, especially one leading to a grave or private home. In funeral processions he serves as exorcist, cleansing the grave of demons before the deceased is laid to rest. Sometimes the god

Xianfeng was the reign name (nianhao) of the seventh emperor of the Qing (Manchu) dynasty (1644–1911/12) of China. During his reign (1850–61) China was beset internally by the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) and externally by conflicts with the encroaching European powers. By the time the Xianfeng

Yongzheng was the reign name (nianhao) of the third emperor (reigned 1722–35) of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12), during whose rule the administration was consolidated and power became concentrated in the emperor’s hands. As the fourth son of the Kangxi emperor, Yinzhen was not immediately in line

Wanli was the emperor of China from 1572 to 1620, during the latter portion of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The Wanli emperor was a recluse whose apparent inattention to government affairs contributed to the abuses of power by provincial officials and other political figures that came to dominate

Xianfeng was the reign name (nianhao) of the seventh emperor of the Qing (Manchu) dynasty (1644–1911/12) of China. During his reign (1850–61) China was beset internally by the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) and externally by conflicts with the encroaching European powers. By the time the Xianfeng

China: Wendi’s institutional reforms: …uniform system of townships (xiang). Appointments to the chief offices in prefectures and counties were now made by the central government rather than filled by members of local influential families, as had been the practice. This reform ensured that local officials would be agents of the central government. It…

Xiang Yu was a Chinese general and leader of the rebel forces that overthrew the Qin dynasty (221–207 bce). He was the principal contestant for control of China with Liu Bang, who, as the Gaozu emperor, founded the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce). Xiang Yu’s defeat signaled the end of the old

Xiang River, river in Hunan province, southeastern China. With a total length of 500 miles (800 km), the Xiang is one of the principal tributaries of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). The Xiang rises in the mountains in the northern part of the Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi and flows northeast

Xiang language, Chinese language that is spoken in Hunan province. The two major varieties of Xiang are New Xiang and Old Xiang. New Xiang, which is spoken predominantly around Changsha, the capital of Hunan, has been strongly influenced by Mandarin Chinese. Old Xiang, which is spoken in other

Xiang River, river in Hunan province, southeastern China. With a total length of 500 miles (800 km), the Xiang is one of the principal tributaries of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). The Xiang rises in the mountains in the northern part of the Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi and flows northeast

Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove: Xiang Xiu wrote Sijiufu (“Reminiscence”) and, with Guo Xiang, a Neo-Daoist contemporary, the Zhuangzizhu, a famous commentary on the works of the early Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi. The other members of the group were the poet Liu Ling, the musician Ruan Xian, the devout Daoist Shan…

China: Phase two: stalemate and stagnation: Ye Ting—with Xiang Ying, a communist, as chief of staff—this force of 12,000 officers and soldiers operated behind Japanese lines near Shanghai with great success. Its strategy included guerrilla tactics, organizing resistance bases, and recruitment. This army grew to more than 100,000 in 1940; by then it…

Xiang Yu was a Chinese general and leader of the rebel forces that overthrew the Qin dynasty (221–207 bce). He was the principal contestant for control of China with Liu Bang, who, as the Gaozu emperor, founded the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce). Xiang Yu’s defeat signaled the end of the old

Nan Mountains: …passes cross the range: the Xiang-Guilin, traversed by the Ling Canal, which affords an easy passage from southern Hunan to Guilin and eastern Guangxi, the chief route in early times; the Zheling, northwest of Shaoguan, which connects Hunan with central Guangdong and is crossed by the railroad that runs from…

Xiangfan, city, northern Hubei sheng (province), central China. It lies in the middle basin of the Han River and is situated just west of the junction of the Han with its northern tributary, the Tangbai River. It is the head of navigation for steamers and is a transshipment point for the junk

Xiangfan, city, northern Hubei sheng (province), central China. It lies in the middle basin of the Han River and is situated just west of the junction of the Han with its northern tributary, the Tangbai River. It is the head of navigation for steamers and is a transshipment point for the junk

Hong Kong, special administrative region (Pinyin: tebie xingzhengqu; Wade-Giles romanization: t’e-pieh hsing-cheng-ch’ü) of China, located to the east of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) estuary on the south coast of China. The region is bordered by Guangdong province to the north and the South China

Yang Hui: …first found fragments of Yang’s Xiangjie jiuzhang suanfa (1261; “A Detailed Analysis of the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Procedures”) in a handwritten copy of an imperial Ming dynasty encyclopaedia, and he later discovered in Suzhou a Song dynasty edition of Yang Hui suanfa (1275; “Yang Hui’s Mathematical Methods”). The…

Xiangkhoang, town, north-central Laos. Xiangkhoang lies just south of the Plain of Jarres and is situated in the Xiangkhoang Plateau. Corn (maize) and rice are raised by valley Lao north of Xiangkhoang and by Lao-Theung (Mon-Khmer) and Tai Neua groups in scattered upland areas to the north and east

Xiangkhoang Plateau, dissected upland of complex geologic structure in north-central Laos. The plateau constitutes a western extension of the northern Annamite Chain; it is drained principally by the Ngum and Ngiap (Nhiêp) rivers to the south and the Khan River to the north, all of which are Mekong

Xiangkhoang Plateau, dissected upland of complex geologic structure in north-central Laos. The plateau constitutes a western extension of the northern Annamite Chain; it is drained principally by the Ngum and Ngiap (Nhiêp) rivers to the south and the Khan River to the north, all of which are Mekong

Chinese chess, strategy board game played in China from about ad 700. Like orthodox chess, Chinese chess is believed to have been derived from an Indian board game known as chaturanga. As in Western chess, the object of Chinese chess is to capture the opponent’s king (also called general in Chinese

Sutlej River, longest of the five tributaries of the Indus River that give the Punjab (meaning “Five Rivers”) region its name. It rises on the north slope of the Himalayas in Lake La’nga in southwestern Tibet, at an elevation above 15,000 feet (4,600 metres). Flowing northwestward and then

Zhongshan, city in southern Guangdong sheng (province), southern China. Located in the south-central part of the Pearl (Zhu) River Delta, Zhongshan has a network of waterways connecting it with all parts of the delta and is on an express highway running north to Guangzhou (Canton) and south to

Bai Juyi was a Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty (618–907) who used his elegantly simple verse to protest the social evils of his day, including corruption and militarism. Bai Juyi began composing poetry at age five. Because of his father’s death in 794 and straitened family circumstances, Bai did

Lu Jiuyuan was an idealist neo-Confucian philosopher of the Southern Song and rival of his contemporary, the great neo-Confucian rationalist Zhu Xi. Lu’s thought was revised and refined three centuries later by the Ming dynasty neo-Confucian Wang Yangming. The name of their school is the Learning

Xiangtan, city, eastern Hunan sheng (province), China. It is situated on the Xiang River at its confluence with the Lian River, 22 miles (35 km) south of Changsha, the provincial capital. Xiangtan has good communications by water in Hunan as far as Hengyang to the south and Shaoyang to the

Zeng Guofan was a Chinese administrator, the military leader most responsible for suppressing the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64)—thus staving off the collapse of China’s imperial regime. Zeng Guofan was born into a prosperous family dominated by his grandfather Zeng Yuping, a farmer with social

Chinese writing: Characteristics: …other types of characters are xiangxing, characters that were originally pictographs (these have a semantic element originally expressed by a picture; for example, the character for tian “field” represents a field by means of a square divided into quarters); zhishi, characters intended to symbolize logical or abstract terms (e.g., er…

China: Invasion of the Song state: The prefectural town of Xiangyang (present-day Xianfan) on the Han River was a key fortress, blocking the access to the Yangtze River, and the Mongols besieged it for five years (1268–73). The Chinese commander finally surrendered in 1273, after he had obtained a solemn promise from the Mongols to…

Mi Fu was a scholar, poet, calligrapher, and painter who was a dominant figure in Chinese art. Of his extensive writings—poetry, essays on the history of aesthetics, and criticism of painting—a considerable amount survives. Mi was born of a family that had held high office in the early years of the

Hunan: Manufacturing of Hunan: Situated at Yueyang, Xiangyin, and near Changsha, these kilns have at different epochs produced all sorts of wares, according to the market of the period. Their fortunes have fluctuated through the centuries. More recently, they have increased their output, especially in the Xiangyin kilns, which produce large quantities…

China: Qing society: Rural lectures (xiangyue) were public ceremonies staged for citizens that combined religious elements with reciting the sacred edict promulgated by the emperor.

Fazang was a Buddhist monk usually considered to be the founder of the Huayan school of Buddhism in China because he systematized its doctrines. Basically, the Huayan school taught that all phenomena are interrelated. Hence every living being possesses the Buddha-nature within. According to legend,

Tiantai Mountains: …northeastern extension of the great Xianxia Mountains in southern Zhejiang, which form the watershed between the Ling River and the Ou River, draining to the east coast of Zhejiang, and the Yin River, the Cao’e River, and rivers of the Qiantang River system, draining to the west and eventually to…

Xianyang, city, central Shaanxi sheng (province), north-central China. It is situated on the north bank of the Wei River about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of Xi’an, in an area that was the cradle of early Chinese civilization. It is on a vital east-west route through the Wei River valley, with good

sanxian, any of a group of long-necked, fretless Chinese lutes. The instrument’s rounded rectangular resonator has a snakeskin front and back, and the curved-back pegbox at the end of the neck has lateral, or side, tuning pegs that adjust three silk or nylon strings. The sanxian is made in several