The spirit of early football can be glimpsed in the introduction of a rule in 1894 that banned projecting nails or iron plates in shoes and any metal substance on the player’s person. Rules establishing boundaries between permissible and impermissible violence have been continually revised over the years, sometimes in response to periods of heightened concern over deaths and injuries (in the early 1930s as well as the 1890s, for example). To ensure greater safety, the number of officials grew from two in 1873 to seven by 1983. Over time, improvements in equipment also provided more safeguards against serious injuries. In the 1890s players’ only protection against blows to the head came from their own long hair and leather nose guards. The first headgear, in 1896, consisted simply of three leather straps. It evolved into close-fitting leather caps with ear flaps. The suspension helmet, which used straps to create space between the helmet shell and the head of the wearer, was introduced in 1917. However, helmets were not required in college football until 1939 (1943 for the National Football League). Improved equipment sometimes increased rather than curtailed the game’s dangers. The plastic helmet, introduced in 1939, became a potentially lethal weapon, eventually requiring rules against “spearing”—using the head to initiate contact.

Expansion and reform

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In 1879 the University of Michigan and Racine College of Wisconsin inaugurated football in the Midwest. Michigan under Fielding Yost in 1901–05 and the University of Chicago under Amos Alonzo Stagg in 1905–09 emerged as major powers. The game also spread throughout the rest of the country by the 1890s, though the Big Three—Harvard, Yale, and Princeton—continued to dominate the collegiate football world into the 1920s. Ever mindful of their superiority to the latecomers, the three (joined by the University of Pennsylvania to create briefly a Big Four) formed the Intercollegiate Rules Committee in 1894, separate from the Intercollegiate Football Association. In 1895 in the Midwest, colleges dissatisfied with this divided leadership asserted their independence by forming what became the Western (now the Big Ten) Conference. The game also spread to the South and West, though conferences were not formed until later in those regions.

The brutality of mass play also spread through the nation; over the course of the 1905 season, 18 young men died from football injuries. Concerned that football might be abolished altogether, President Theodore Roosevelt in October 1905 summoned representatives (including Camp) from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton to the White House, where he urged them to reform the game. On December 28 of that year representatives from 62 colleges and universities (not including the Big Three, who would continue for decades to balk at submitting to the will of “inferior” institutions) met in New York to form the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, which became the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1910. To reduce mass play, the group at its initial meeting increased the yardage required for a first down from 5 yards to 10 and legalized the forward pass, the final element in the creation of the game of American football. The founding of the NCAA effectively ended the period when the Big Three (and Walter Camp personally) dictated rules of play to the rest of the football world. It also ended student involvement in controlling the game, though the question of who should rule college football—coaches, alumni and boosters, or college administrators—would continue to bedevil the NCAA throughout its history.

Brutality did not end with the revised rules of 1906. New crises prompted additional rule changes in 1910 (requiring seven men on the line of scrimmage) and 1912 (increasing the number of downs to gain 10 yards from three to four) to eliminate mass play. Nor did the forward pass immediately transform the game. The restrictive 1906 rules made passes riskier than fumbles, and it was only after several years of cautious experimentation that Notre Dame’s upset of Army in 1913 highlighted the remarkable possibilities in the passing game. It would be another three decades, however—during which restrictive rules were gradually dropped and the circumference of the ball reduced to facilitate passing—before those possibilities could be fully realized.

Sport and spectacle

This early period in American football was formative in another way as well. Beginning in 1876, the original Intercollegiate Football Association staged a championship game at the end of each season, on Thanksgiving Day, matching the two best teams from the previous year. Initially the game was played in Hoboken, New Jersey, but in 1880 it was shifted to New York City to make it easier for students from all the universities in the association to attend the game. The attendance for that first contest in New York was 5,000. By 1884 it had climbed to 15,000; it rose to 25,000 by 1890 and 40,000 by 1893, the last Thanksgiving Day game to be played in the city. By this time, accounts of the game in New York’s major newspapers were taking up as much as three pages in an eight-page paper, and wire services carried reports to every corner of the country. By the 1890s an extracurricular activity at a handful of elite northeastern universities was becoming a spectator sport with a nationwide audience. College football became known for its bands and cheerleaders, pep rallies and bonfires, and homecoming dances and alumni reunions as much as for its athletic thrills. Pursuing the institution’s educational mission while serving the public’s desire for entertainment posed a dilemma with which college administrators struggled for more than a century. For some of the public, college football’s association with institutions of higher education and immersion in college spirit imbued the game with a kind of amateur purity. For others, the colleges’ profession of commitment to academic goals while commercializing their sports teams only smacked of hypocrisy.