Tool materials
In order to remove chips from a workpiece, a cutting tool must be harder than the workpiece and must maintain a cutting edge at the temperature produced by the friction of the cutting action.
Carbon steel
Steel with a carbon content ranging from 1 to 1.2 percent was the earliest material used in machine tools. Tools made of this carbon steel are comparatively inexpensive but tend to lose cutting ability at temperatures at about 400° F (205° C).
High-speed steel
In 1900 the introduction of high-speed steel permitted the operation of tools at twice or three times the speeds allowable with carbon steel, thus doubling or trebling the capacities of the world’s machine shops. One of the most common types of high-speed steel contains 18 percent tungsten, 4 percent chromium, 1 percent vanadium, and only 0.5 to 0.8 percent carbon.
Cast alloys
A number of cast-alloy cutting-tool materials have been developed; these nonferrous alloys contain cobalt, chromium, and tungsten and are particularly effective in penetrating the hard skin on cast iron and retaining their cutting ability even when red hot.
Cemented tungsten carbide
This material was first used for metal cutting in Germany in 1926. Its principal ingredient is finely divided tungsten carbide held in a binder of cobalt; its hardness approaches that of a diamond. Tungsten carbide tools can be operated at cutting speeds many times higher than those used with high-speed steel.
Oxides
Ceramic, or oxide, tool tips are one of the newest developments in cutting-tool materials. They consist primarily of fine aluminum oxide grains, which are bonded together.
Diamonds
Diamonds have been used for many years for truing grinding wheels, in wire-drawing dies, and as cutting tools. For cutting applications they are used largely for taking light finishing cuts at high speed on hard or abrasive materials and for finish-boring bronze and babbitt-metal bearings.
Cutting fluids
In many machine-tool operations, cutting fluids or coolants are used to modify the harmful effects of friction and high temperatures. In general, the major functions of a coolant are to lubricate and cool. When cutting a screw thread, either on a lathe or with a tap, the lubricating function is most important; in production-grinding operations, the cooling function predominates. Water is an excellent cooling medium, but it corrodes ferrous materials. Lard oil has excellent lubricating qualities, but it tends to become rancid. Sulfurized mineral oil is one of the most popular coolants. The sulfur tends to prevent chips from the work from welding to the tip of the tool. For sawing and grinding operations, soluble oil, which is an oily emulsion freely miscible in water, is commonly used.