- Related Topics:
- escort ship
- dock landing ship
- warship
- gunport
- dreadnought
Coincidentally, across the sea to the north the city-state of Rome expanded to include most of the southern Italian peninsula, with its extensive seacoast and maritime heritage. Rome’s growth southward collided with Carthage’s ambitions in Sicily, leading to the First Punic War, which began in 264 bce. Unlike their seafaring opponents, the Romans were not a naval power. When in the fourth year of the war Carthage sent a fleet against Sicily, Rome realized its fatal disadvantage and moved to remedy it. The Greek city-states it had conquered had long seagoing experience. Employing their shipbuilders and learning also from the foe, Rome built a fleet of triremes and quinqueremes, the latter patterned after a Carthaginian warship that ran aground in Roman territory early in the war.
Not content with copying the enemy’s tactics, the Romans took land warfare to sea and forced the Carthaginians to fight on Roman terms. Each Roman galley had fitted in the bow a hinged gangplank with a grappling spike or hook (the corvus) in the forward end, thus providing a boarding ramp. They added to the crews many more marines than warships usually carried.
The Phoenicians and Greeks had emphasized ramming, with boarding as a secondary tactic. A Roman captain rammed and then dropped the gangplank. Ram and corvus locked the galleys together, and the Roman marines boarded, overwhelming the opponent. The Roman fleet had extraordinary success in the great naval Battle of Mylae off northeast Sicily, destroying or capturing 44 ships and 10,000 people. After other victories, and some defeats, by the end of the First Punic War, 241 bce, Rome had become the leading sea power.
As the Roman navy evolved, so did its warships. Though pictorial evidence is ambiguous, it seems clear that the gangplank and corvus disappeared as the Romans gained experience in sea warfare. Later Roman warships appear to have been conventional fully decked ram-galleys mounting one or two wooden turrets (probably dismountable) for archers. To the single mast with rectangular sail was added a bowsprit carrying a small sail, the artemon, Falces, or long spars tipped with blades, were used by Julius Caesar’s fleet against the sailing vessels of the Veneti of northwestern Gaul to cut their rigging and immobilize them. Catapults and ballistae served as mechanical artillery, and it was under their fire that Caesar’s legions landed in England.
Early Roman warships were all large; to escort merchantmen and combat pirates Rome found need for a lighter type, the liburnian. Probably developed by the pirates themselves, this was originally a light, fast unireme to which the Romans added a second bank of oars. In the Battle of Actium, 31 bce, Octavian’s skilled fleet commander, Agrippa, used his liburnians to good effect. Although polyremes continued to be built after Actium, the liburnian became the predominant Roman man-of-war.
The Byzantine Empire
With the breakup of the western Roman Empire, naval organization and activity in the west decayed. In the eastern Roman Empire, however, the need for sea power was well appreciated. During the 11 centuries that the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople, the Byzantine rulers maintained a highly organized fleet. Their original type of warship was the liburnian, called in Greek the dromōn; it was built in several different sizes, the heavier designed to bear the weight of battle and the lighter single-bank dromons serving as cruisers and scouts.
Throughout the eastern Roman Empire’s existence warships changed little except in rig and armament. An average large dromon measured up to 150 feet (46 metres) in length, with 100 oars and one or two fighting towers for marines. At some point early in the Christian era, the lateen sail, three-cornered and suspended from an angled yard, probably adopted from the Arabs, came into general use. Eastern warships had two or three masts. In a departure from classical customs, these were left in place in battle. Contemporary pictures show rams above the waterline.
Missile-launching weapons grew in size, some hurling projectiles as large as 1,000 pounds (450 kg) up to 750 yards (685 metres). Greek fire, a combustible material for setting fire to enemy ships, was invented in the 7th century or earlier. The various compounds passing under the name used a blend of some of the following: pitch, oil, charcoal, sulfur, phosphorus, and salt. As the composition of Greek fire was improved, tubes shaped into the mouths of savage monsters were placed in the bows of war galleys and the flaming substance, which water merely spread, was hurled on the enemy. Greek fire was an important factor in terrifying and repelling the Muslim fleet in sieges of Constantinople from the early 8th century on.
Viking vessels
By the beginning of the Viking period, about 800 ce, the early and primitive Scandinavian craft had evolved into the well-known Viking ship, a sturdy, double-ended, clinker-built (i.e., with overlapping planks) galley put together with iron nails and caulked with tarred rope. It had a mast and square sail, which was lowered in battle; high bow and stern, with removable dragon heads; and a single side rudder on the starboard (steer-board) quarter.
Viking vessels were essentially large open boats. Like the Homeric Greeks, the Vikings at first made no distinction between war and cargo ships, the same vessel serving either purpose as the occasion demanded. Later, however, they built larger ships specifically designed for war. By 1000 ce they sailed three categories of these: those with fewer than 20 thwarts (40 rowers); those with up to 30; and the “great ships” with more than 30, which might be considered the battleship of the time. Expensive and unwieldy, though formidable in battle, the great ships were never numerous. The middle group, maneuverable and fast, proved most valuable.
Viking “long ships” played an important role in exploration (reaching Greenland and America before Columbus), in the consolidation of kingdoms in Scandinavia, and in far-ranging raids and conquests. In them the Norse invaded the British Isles and established themselves in Normandy, whence their descendants under William I the Conqueror crossed the Channel in 1066.
The age of gun and sail
To about the end of the 13th century, the typical ship in northern European waters remained a clinker-built, single-masted, square-rigged descendant of the long ship. In that century, and even more in the 14th, changes began that would bring an end to the long dominance of the oar in battle. About 1200 ce came one of the great steps in the history of sail: the introduction, probably in the Netherlands, of the stern rudder. This rudder, along with the deep-draft hull, the bowsprit and, in time, additional masts, transformed the long ship into the true sailing ship, which could beat into the wind as well as sail with it.
Until the 15th century, northern ships probably continued to have single masts, though in the Mediterranean a two-mast rig carrying lateen (fore-and-aft) sails had existed for some time. Then change came rapidly in the north, spurred on by Henry V of England’s construction of large and strongly built warships for his cross-Channel French campaigns. The remains of one of these, the Grâce Dieu, reflected the clinker-built construction of the Viking long ship, but they had a keel to beam ratio of about 2.5:1 and now carried a second mast.
Some historians believe that the Grâce Dieu carried a third mast. At any rate, in a few decades ships had three and, by the end of the century, large vessels mounted four masts carrying eight or more sails. A three-master carried a large sail on each mast and in addition a main topsail and the spritsail under the bowsprit—the rig, in fact, of Christopher Columbus’ Santa María in 1492. Ships, no longer dependent on fair winds, could and did range the world.
The beamier round sailing ship used for commerce also became the warship when the need arose. In times of war, temporary wooden castles were added at the bow and stern to provide bulwarked platforms for archers and slingers. A complement of men-at-arms embarked, in addition to the ship’s seamen. Tactics were usually simple and straightforward, opposing fleets closing and attempting to beat down each other’s archers before grappling and boarding. At war’s end, off came the castles, and the ship went back to trading.
The trading vessel that could be promptly adapted to war did not, however, fulfill the need of the European nations for navies. The coming of gunpowder and the period of world exploration brought changes that were to cause the sailing man-of-war to become more and more distinct from the merchantman.
Gun-armed warships
The employment of guns afloat, bringing a slow but progressive revolution in warship construction and naval tactics, had its first small beginnings by the 14th century. The first guns used at sea, undoubtedly hand weapons, were probably in Mediterranean galleys in the 13th or early 14th century. Such weapons played a minor role. In fact, in the numerous sea battles of the Greeks, Genoese, Moors, Turks, and Venetians during this period there is no mention of guns. But by the middle of the 14th century, the English, French, Spanish, and other navies mounted guns. Most were relatively small swivel pieces or breech-loading deck guns located in the castles fore and aft, but heavier guns were added later. The Mediterranean galleys of Venice, Turkey, and Spain at first simply mounted a heavy gun rigidly in a timber bed that was fixed to fire the gun forward over the bow. By the late 15th century these rigid mounts gave way to sliding mounts for the main centreline bow gun, as the pieces were called. Though some of these pieces were quite large, the light structure of a galley meant that there was only one large gun per vessel.
European guns were originally built up of wrought-iron bars welded together to form a tube, then banded with a thick iron hoop. Initially, they were breechloaders with an open trough at the rear of the barrel through which the ball was loaded and a cylindrical chamber, filled with powder, inserted and wedged tight. They were replaced after 1500 by brass muzzle-loaders, cast in one piece. Some of these muzzle-loaders attained great size for their day; by the mid-16th century even some 60-pounders (firing 60-pound [27-kg] solid shot) were mounted in the largest ships. In this century also, increasing knowledge of iron metallurgy led to the production of cast-iron cannon that slowly replaced the brass guns in ships, though brass remained predominant for the lighter calibre well into the 19th century.
The Portuguese and Spanish, and then the French, seem to have been the first to cover transoceanic distances with cannon-armed warships. Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in India in 1498 with a squadron of cannon-armed carracks, and the Portuguese gained a number of signal victories over their Muslim opponents in the East in the early years of the 16th century using standoff artillery tactics that their foes could not match. The Spanish were patrolling the waters of the Caribbean in ships well-provided with wrought-iron breech-loading cannon by the 1520s or ’30s, if not before, and heavily armed French raiders were not far behind.
Henry VII of England created the first true oceangoing battle fleet. The “king’s ships” carried many guns, but most of these weapons were small breechloaders. Following him, Henry VIII initiated gunports in English warships, a development that was to have a far-reaching effect on man-of-war design. Neither stability nor structural strength favoured heavy guns in the high castles built upon the deck, so that Henry’s introduction of gunports, at first low in the waist of the ship and afterward along the full broadside, made possible the true heavy-gun warship. The cutting of gunports in the hull must also have been a factor in causing the northern nations to shift from clinker-built ships to caravels with flush-fitting planks, a change that took place in the early 1500s.
The armament of an English man-of-war of the early 16th century consisted of four or five short-barreled cannon, or curtals, a similar number of demicannon, and culverins. The average cannon, a short-range gun, hurled an iron ball of about 50 pounds (23 kg), and the demicannon one of 32 pounds (14 kg). The culverin, a longer and stronger gun, fired a smaller shot over a longer range and was likely to be more accurate at other than point-blank range. Supplementing these standoff “ship killers,” in descending size of ball fired (down to only several ounces), were the smaller demiculverin, saker (quarter culverin), falcon (half saker), falconet, and robinet.
A great warship of the 16th century mounted a total of large and small pieces approximating the numbers mounted in battleships of World War II. For its original complement in 1514, Henry VIII’s best-known warship, the Henry Grâce à Dieu, had 186 guns. Most of these were small, but they also included a number of iron “great guns.”
As the 17th century advanced, guns and gunpowder improved. Gun carriages were given heavy wooden sides called brackets, which had sockets for the gun trunnions and were joined by similar flat timbers called transoms. The carriage was supported on wooden trucks and hauled out after recoil by heavy tackle.