Blackfoot

Blackfoot, Indigenous North American tribe composed of three closely related bands, the Piegan (officially spelled Peigan in Canada), or Piikuni; the Blood, or Kainah (also spelled Kainai or Akainiwa); and the Siksika, or Blackfoot proper (often referred to as the Northern Blackfoot). The three groups, often called the Blackfoot confederacy, traditionally lived in what is now Alberta, Canada, and the U.S. state of Montana, and there they remain, with one reservation in Montana and three reserves (as they are called in Canada), one for each band, in Alberta. The Blackfoot in the United States are officially known as the Blackfeet Nation, though the Blackfoot word siksika, from which the English name was translated, is not plural.

Language

The Blackfoot language (Siksikáí’powahsin) is a member of the Algonquian language family. It consists of four mutually intelligible varieties, each corresponding to a modern reserve or reservation. The language is endangered: although it is still used across multiple generations, children are typically not proficient in the language. In 2021 there were fewer than 5,000 native Blackfoot speakers.

Precontact history and culture

The early history of the Blackfoot is unclear. Early scholars in particular believed, on the basis of linguistic evidence, that the Blackfoot migrated from the Great Lakes region to the Great Plains sometime after the 17th century. However, later archaeological finds, along with a reevaluation of the linguistic evidence, shows continuities in Blackfoot material culture going back to at least the beginning of the 16th century, with some scholars arguing earlier dates.

By the early 18th century the Blackfoot were pedestrian buffalo hunters living in the Saskatchewan valley about 400 miles (645 km) east of the Rocky Mountains. They lived as nomads on the Plains, using wooden travois drawn by dogs to transport their goods, including their painted buffalo-hide tepees, particularly prior to the introduction of the horse in the early 18th century.

The Blackfoot followed a seasonal round. Each Blackfoot band was divided into several hunting bands led by one or more chiefs. These bands wintered separately in sheltered river valleys. In the summer they gathered in a great encampment to observe the Sun Dance, the principal tribal religious ceremony. Many individuals owned elaborate medicine bundles—collections of sacred objects that, when properly venerated, were said to bring success in war and hunting and protection against sickness and misfortune.

The 19th and 20th centuries

At the height of their power, in the first half of the 19th century, the Blackfoot confederacy held a vast territory extending from northern Saskatchewan to the southernmost headwaters of the Missouri River. They were known as one of the strongest and most aggressive military powers on the northwestern Plains. For a quarter of a century after 1806 they prevented British, French, and American fur traders, whom they regarded as poachers, from trapping in the rich beaver country of the upper tributaries of the Missouri. At the same time, they warred with neighboring tribes, capturing horses and taking captives.

The late 1800s and early 1900s were a time of decline for the Blackfoot confederacy. In 1855 those in the United States signed their first treaty with the U.S. government, which established a reservation for the Blackfoot. In spite of this treaty, American settlers continued to move into the area in search of ranch land and mineral resources for mining, which resulted in conflicts between the Blackfoot and the settlers. During this period the buffalo, a main food source for the Blackfoot, was hunted nearly to extinction. In the Starvation Winter of 1883–84 almost 600 Blackfoot in Montana died—nearly a quarter of the total number of Blackfoot in Montana at that time—along with about 1,000 individuals in Canada. Subsequent decades saw the gradual dwindling of Blackfoot tribal land, with what is now Glacier National Park ceded in 1896 in exchange for government annuities. The Blackfoot in Canada likewise entered into agreements with the government, such as Treaty 7 in 1877, which created a reserve for each of the three bands. Each of these reserves was altered after its creation: the Piegan and Blood reserves were moved in the late 19th century and the Canadian government pressured the Siksika to sell a large portion of their land to it in 1910.

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Both the United States and Canada created boarding schools (called residential schools in Canada) for Blackfoot children. These opened between 1886 and 1898 on all three Canadian reserves and in 1905 in Montana. In the first half of the 20th century these schools began to face criticism and protest by Indigenous groups for their harsh conditions. This led to the closure of the schools in Canada in the second half of the 20th century, after the government deemed them ineffective, and to the school in Montana being turned over to the Blackfeet Nation in 1966. The latter now serves as a boarding dormitory, and children housed in the facility attend Browning Public Schools.

The 21st century

In 2020 about 35,000 people living in the United States identified themselves as having only Blackfoot ancestry, while about 300,000 others claimed Blackfoot and other Native American ancestry. In 2023 there were about 25,000 members registered in Canada to three Blackfoot entities: the Piikani Nation, with a registered population of 3,915; the Siksika Nation, with a registered population of 7,713; and the Blood Tribe with a registered population of 12,896.