Heptarchy

Heptarchy, word used to designate the period between the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England toward the end of the 5th century ce and the destruction of most of them by the Danes in the second half of the 9th century. It is derived from the Greek words for "seven" and "rule." The seven kingdoms were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.

Early Anglo-Saxon history

The central theme of Anglo-Saxon history in England is the process by which a number of diverse Germanic peoples came to form the centralized kingdom which the Normans inherited from their English predecessors. According to English traditions, the migration to Britain was preceded by the descent of small companies on different parts of the British coast in the second half of the 5th century. The one contemporary account of these events written by Gildas, De excidio et conquestu Britanniae (“The Overthrow and Conquest of Britain”), makes them originate from an invitation sent by an unnamed British prince to certain “Saxon” adventurers to enter his service and defend his country against Pictish and Scottish raiders. Later British and English traditions give the name Vortigern to the British prince and state that the leaders of the Saxon auxiliaries were two brothers named Hengist and Horsa. A revolt of these mercenaries, who had been joined by many other Saxons, was followed by devastations which spread as far as the western sea, by the creation of new British forces after the original mercenaries had dispersed to their own countries, and by a conflict between the Britons and fresh invaders which culminated soon after the year 500 in a British victory at a place called Mons Badonicus, as yet unidentified. Thenceforward for more than a generation the invaders were confined to the southeastern coastlands which they had occupied in the earlier phases of the war. Many of them returned to the continent and obtained land for settlement from the kings of the Franks. The remainder formed the nucleus of the earliest English kingdoms.

How far these primitive kingdoms stretched into the interior of the country is an open question. The historical evidence leaves no serious doubt that the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex had come into being before the end of the 5th century and that the dynasty which afterward appeared in Wessex was descended from leaders who belong to this period. Of the other southern kingdoms—Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Lindsey—and of the northern kingdom of Deira, corresponding roughly to central and eastern Yorkshire, no traditions of origin have been preserved. In the farthest north, the foundation of the kingdom of Bernicia was assigned by a reasonable approximation to the year 547.

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For the beginnings of settlement in the eastern half of England there is some evidence to be obtained from the distribution of pre-Christian burial grounds and English place-names of an archaic type. It suggests that by the year 500, permanent settlements had been founded well to the rear of the entire coastline from Flamborough Head to Southampton Water and that in some districts, notably the valleys which merge into the estuary of the Wash, the English had penetrated far inland.

The expansion which carried the English peoples to the mastery of southern Britain began in the middle of the 6th century. Between 552 and 584 it brought the West Saxons, the one people whose early history can be traced in an outline, from the River Avon in Wiltshire to the River Severn at Gloucester, the River Lea at Luton, and the hills above the valley of the upper reaches of the Great Ouse. They were unable to retain the whole of this vast territory. Within a generation they had lost its outlying portions to the rival kingdom of the Mercians, finding their own destiny thenceforward in a gradual extension of their power toward the southwest. The midland country which they had occupied was never reconquered by the Britons. In the north the English of Bernicia, after a generation of precarious existence between the Pennines and the North Sea, suddenly became a formidable power under King Aethelfrith (593-616), who repelled attacks from both Dalriada Scots and Britons, annexed the kingdom of Deira, and toward the end of his reign won a long-remembered victory over the British king of Powys at Chester. It is with these events that the history of the English peoples in Britain becomes at last a matter of consecutive record.

The chronicle of Bede and the Bretwalda

The chief chronicler of this period was the 8th-century monk Saint Bede the Venerable, the greatest of the Anglo-Saxon historians. There is sufficient evidence from archaeological remains and ancient place-names to suggest that in its main outlines Bede’s Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (“Ecclesiastical History of the English People”) is substantially correct. It was certainly more than a literary reconstruction by a monk writing in isolation, and Bede himself stated that he had sent a draft of his history to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria, “to read and examine….” Its statements therefore carry the approval of a Northumbrian king in an age when courts were the chief repositories of national traditions.

Bede names seven kings who successively ruled all the southern provinces of the English people as far as the River Humber, the first of whom was Aelle (flourished late 5th century ce), king of the South Saxons. The second was Ceawlin (ruled 560-592, died 593), king of the West Saxons, under whom the kingdom of Wessex reached the most northerly limits of its early expansion. The third was Aethelberht of Kent (560-616), in whose time the southern kingdoms had begun to assume the outlines of their permanent shape. A 9th-century annalist who copied Bede’s list states that this overlordship brought the title Bretwalda to its possessor. The word, which means “ruler of Britain,” belongs to the complimentary language commonly addressed by poets to patrons who entertained them at court. However, it indicates the range of the superiority allowed to their overlords by the lesser kings who combined to form these early confederacies. Politically, the Kentish kingdom was not strong enough to keep the position to which Aethelberht had raised it. Even before his death in 616, supremacy in southern England was passing from Kent to East Anglia under Raedwald, the fourth in Bede’s list of overlords.

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In the north, a greater Northumbria was coming into being under Aethelfrith, and the first recorded trial of strength between northern and southern England was an attack on Aethelfrith by Raedwald in the interest of his protégé Edwin, the exiled heir of the Deiran kingdom. In a battle on the River Idle, near Bawtry, Aethelfrith was killed (616) and Edwin, the fifth in Bede’s list, became king of all Northumbria. Within a few years he had been recognized as overlord throughout southern England, apart from Kent, with which he had a special relationship through his marriage to Aethelberga, King Aethelberht’s daughter. Even so, he came much nearer than any previous king to a position of authority over all of England. Edwin was overthrown in battle (632) on his southern border by Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd, and a member of the Mercian royal house named Penda, who was carried by the victory into the Mercian kingship.

For a year, Cadwallon and his allies gave themselves to a deliberate harrying of all Northumbria. The kingdom was restored by Oswald, son of Aethelfrith of Bernicia. Oswald’s destruction of Cadwallon and his army in 633 made him the outstanding figure among the kings of his time, and he is the sixth in Bede’s list. His reputation among the kings of the north was as great as that which Edwin had once possessed, and in the south he is known to have had direct authority in Lindsey, Wessex, and Sussex. In Mercia, where Penda by now was king, Oswald was regarded as an enemy, and in 641 he was defeated and killed by a Mercian army. After this battle Northumbria devolved into its two ancient divisions of Deira and Bernicia. In Bernicia, Oswald was succeeded by his brother Oswiu, the seventh and final king in Bede’s list. For 13 years Oswiu was confronted by rival kings in Deira and was kept in enforced subordination to Penda by the surrender of hostages. This uneasy equilibrium was ended by one of the most obscure episodes in Old English history. In 654, for no discernible reason, Oswiu was attacked by Penda at the head of a large army to which many allied kings and princes had brought their followers. Penda was defeated and killed in a battle fought in the area of Leeds, and Oswiu, reuniting Deira and Bernicia, was able to annex northern Mercia to his own kingdom and to reestablish Northumbrian ascendancy in the south. Three years later, a revolt in Mercia destroyed this settlement, and with it the possibility that England might be united politically under Northumbrian leadership.