Evolution of contemporary cultures

The Conquest and its effects

The Spaniards overthrew the urbanized, class-structured high civilization of the Aztecs and established a system of alliances with the tributary states. The conquerors decapitated native society, substituting the Spanish for the Indian nobility. They introduced a host of new agricultural techniques and crops, along with steel, horses and cattle, mines, European crafts, and new forms of social organization. They also created dichotomies between ethnic and racial groups, giving them different rights and obligations.

In the early colonial period following the conquest, a small minority of Spaniards administered and controlled vast Indian populations. The religion of the conquerors spread rapidly, as did many of their domesticated plants and animals. In this period the Indians were grouped into villages modelled on the grid plan, with a central plaza on which stood the church and town hall. The basic economic institutions were the encomienda and the religious reservation: the encomienda was an allotment of land and labour to a Spanish overlord, used in the densely peopled areas of the former high civilizations; the religious reservation was established by the Jesuits in the northwest.

The later colonial period saw the abolition of the encomienda and the secularization of the religious reservation. Where previously the upper strata of the Indian population had intermarried with the Spanish, the later colonial period brought a more rigid separation of the Spanish and the Indians. Although the encomienda was legally dead, its economic consequences persisted: the colonial-plantation economy developed, along with the cattle ranch and the mining complex. Indian lands were taken over at an increasing rate, and the Indians gave up whatever illusion they may have had as to the benefits to be gained from the white man’s culture.

Mexico and Guatemala became independent of Spain in 1821. The early republican period involved the Indians only marginally. As the native Spanish and mestizos threw off European domination with the slogans and banners of the French Revolution, they neither considered the Indians nor involved them in their struggles. For the Indians it was a time of cultural and social consolidation, spent in the building of defenses against land encroachment and in the erection of communication barriers to protect their cultural heritage.

The later republican period was for Mexico and Guatemala a time of nation building, of moderate industrialization, and of commercial agriculture. The Indian was seen as anachronistic, an obstacle to the march of triumphant nationalism. For the Indian, the consequences were drastic. The national and international economy led him to develop a social structure and cultural pattern that would keep the Indian community intact, even at a low economic level. The strong corporate Indian community reached its most definitive form under the pressures of land-grabbing and anti-Indian social policies.

The 20th century

In the Mexican revolution that began in 1910, the Indians won a place in the political structure. The official policy became pro-Indian. This policy exalts the Indian heritage and makes it the root of the national heritage. In its economic and political aspects it aims at “incorporation” of the Indian into national society on terms set by the Indians themselves. It also provides special services to Indians, as demonstrated in the many programs of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista de Mexico in health, road building, agriculture, and literacy. It employs themes from Indian culture, as in the murals of the Mexican neo-Realists and the music of modern Mexican composers. In Guatemala a similar policy had a brief vogue, but it was reversed following the counterrevolution of 1954.

But the forces shaping contemporary Indian life lie largely outside these official policies. Population increase, the expansion of physical and cultural communication, industrialization, urbanization, and the power struggle between factions of the left and right are the basic forces that influence the lives of the Indians of Middle America.