Language affiliations
Tibeto-Burman languages
Tibetic languages
The Tibetic (also called the Bodic, from Bod, the Tibetan name for Tibet) division comprises the Bodish-Himalayish, Kirantish, and Mirish language groups.
Burmic languages
The Burmic division comprises Burmish, Kachinish, and Kukish.
A number of Tibeto-Burman languages that are difficult to classify have marginal affiliations with Burmic. The Luish languages (Andro, Sengmai, Kadu, Sak, and perhaps also Chairel) in Manipur, India, and adjacent Myanmar resemble Kachin; Nung (including Rawang and Trung) in Kachin state in Myanmar and in Yunnan province, China, has similarities with Kachin; and Mikir in Assam, as well as Mru and Meitei (Meetei) in India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, seem close to Kukish.
Baric languages
The Baric, or Bodo-Garo, division consists of a number of languages spoken in Assam and falls into a Bodo branch (not to be confused with Bodic-Tibetic, and Bodish, a subdivision of Tibetic) and a Garo branch.
A group of Sino-Tibetan languages in Nagaland (Nagish, not to be confused with the Naga branch of Kukish; including Mo Shang, Namsang, and Banpara) has affinities to Baric.
Karenic languages
The Karenic languages of Karen state in Myanmar and adjacent areas in Myanmar and Thailand include the two major languages of the Pho (Pwo) and Sgaw, which have some 3.2 million speakers. Taungthu (Pa-o) is close to Pho, and Palaychi to Sgaw. There are several minor groups.
Chinese, or Sinitic, languages
Chinese as the name of a language is a misnomer. It has been applied to numerous dialects, styles, and languages since the middle of the 2nd millennium bce. Sinitic is a more satisfactory designation for covering all these entities and setting them off from the Tibeto-Karen group of Sino-Tibetan languages. Han is a Chinese term for Chinese as opposed to non-Chinese languages spoken in China. The Chinese terms for Modern Standard Chinese are putonghua “common language” and guoyu “national language” (the latter term is used in Taiwan).
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Reconstructed prehistoric Chinese is known as Proto-Sinitic (or Proto-Chinese). The oldest historic language of China is called Archaic, or Old, Chinese (8th–3rd centuries bce), and that of the next period up to and including the Tang dynasty (618–907 ce) is known as Ancient, or Middle, Chinese. Languages of later periods include Old, Middle, and Modern Mandarin (the name Mandarin is a translation of guanhua, “civil servant language”). Through history the Sinitic language area has constantly expanded from the “Middle Kingdom” around the eastern Huang He (Yellow River) to its present size. The persistence of a common nonphonetic writing system for centuries explains why the word dialect rather than language has had widespread usage for referring to the modern speech forms. The present-day spoken languages are not mutually intelligible (some are further apart than Portuguese is from Italian), and neither are the major subdivisions within each group. The variation is slightest in the western and southwestern provinces and greatest along the Huang He and in the coastal areas. The table gives the percentage of Chinese people speaking each of the various Chinese languages.
A vernacular written tradition exists mainly in Beijing Mandarin and in Cantonese, spoken in the vicinity of Guangzhou (Canton). An unwritten storytelling tradition has survived in most languages. The school and radio language is Modern Standard Chinese in China as well as in Taiwan and Singapore. In Hong Kong, Cantonese prevails as the language of education and in the communication media, but efforts are now made to adopt Modern Standard Chinese as a norm. The same orthographic system is employed, with some variations, by all speakers of Chinese.
Non-Chinese Sino-Tibetan languages of China include some Lolo-type languages (Burmish)—Yi, with nearly 7,000,000 speakers in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Guangxi; Hani (Akha) with about 500,000 speakers in Yunnan; Lisu, with approximately 610,000 speakers in Yunnan; Lahu, with about 440,000 speakers in Yunnan; and Naxi, with approximately 300,000 speakers mostly in Yunnan and Sichuan. Other Sino-Tibetan languages in Yunnan and Sichuan are Kachin and the closely related Atsi (Zaiwa); Achang, Nu, Pumi (Primi), Qiang, Gyarung, Xifan; and Bai (Minjia, probably a separate branch within Sinitic).