The Sun Also Rises
The Sun Also Rises, first major novel by Ernest Hemingway, published in 1926. Titled Fiesta in England, the novel captures the moods, feelings, and attitudes of a hard-drinking, fast-living group of disillusioned expatriates in postwar France and Spain.
Plot summary
The Sun Also Rises follows a group of young American and British expatriates as they wander through Europe in the mid-1920s. They are all members of the cynical and disillusioned Lost Generation, who came of age during World War I (1914–18). Two of the novel’s main characters, Lady Brett Ashley and Jake Barnes, typify the Lost Generation. Jake, the novel’s narrator, is a journalist and World War I veteran. During the war Jake suffered an injury that rendered him impotent. (The title obliquely references Jake’s injury and what no longer rises because of it.) After the war Jake moved to Paris, where he lives near his friend, the Jewish author Robert Cohn.
Jake’s former lover, Brett, also lives in Paris. Jake and Brett met and fell in love during the war, when Brett, a volunteer nurse, helped treat Jake’s injuries. Although it is not said explicitly, it is implied that they are not together because Jake is impotent and Brett unwilling to give up sex. When Cohn confesses his romantic interest in Brett to Jake, Jake cautions him against pursuing a relationship with Brett, who is engaged to be married to Mike Campbell, a Scottish war veteran. Both Brett and Cohn eventually leave Paris: Brett sets off for San Sebastian (a small beach town in Spain) and Cohn for the countryside.
A few weeks after their departure, the writer Bill Gorton (another of Jake’s friends) arrives in Paris. Together, Jake and Bill decide to go to Spain to attend the Fiesta de San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, to see the running of the bulls and the bullfights. Before they leave, Jake and Bill run into Brett, who has recently returned from Spain, and her fiancé, Mike. Brett and Mike ask to accompany Jake and Bill to Pamplona. In private Brett reveals to Jake that she spent the last few weeks in Spain with Cohn.
Bill and Jake take a train to the south of France, where they meet Cohn. Bill, Jake, and Cohn travel together to Pamplona, where they are eventually joined by Brett and Mike. They stay at a local hotel owned by a man named Montoya. Montoya is a bullfighting enthusiast, and he is eager to introduce the foreigners to the sport. Brett and Jake are especially captivated by the bullfights, and Brett is captivated by a 19-year-old bullfighter named Pedro Romero. While Mike, Cohn, and, incidentally, Jake spar over Brett, Brett runs off to Madrid with Romero.
After the festival ends, Jake, Mike, and Bill leave Pamplona. After a night in the south of France, Jake decides to return to Spain. He soon receives a telegram from Brett asking for help in Madrid. Jake immediately goes to Madrid, where he learns that Brett sent Romero away for fear of corrupting him. The novel ends unspectacularly, with Jake and Brett talking in a taxi in Madrid. In the final lines of the novel, Brett tells Jake she thinks they could have had a wonderful time together. Jake replies, “Yes, isn’t it pretty to think so?”
Analysis and interpretation
Hemingway credited Gertrude Stein with coining the term Lost Generation. Stein, referring to Hemingway and his writer friends, reportedly told him, “You are all a lost generation”—a remark Hemingway used as an epigraph to The Sun Also Rises. As bitter as it may be, it is fitting. The Sun Also Rises captures the existential disillusionment characteristic of the Lost Generation. Its main characters—Jake, Brett, and their acquaintances—are mentally, emotionally, and morally lost. Their lives lack meaningful foundations and their romantic attachments are fleeting. Although they regularly go out together, their revelry is often joyless. Fueled by alcohol, the expatriates wander from bar to bar, fighting senseless battles over women and sex. All of the characters (especially the war veterans) use alcohol to distract themselves from their inner lives and the unpleasant feelings they associate with the war.
Hemingway renders the disorientation and distractedness of the Lost Generation in sparing prose, devoid of sentimentality and flowery language. In The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway barely develops the interior lives of his main characters. By withholding key details about their mental and emotional states, Hemingway conveys the fundamental emptiness of the expatriates’ lives.
Reception
The Sun Also Rises received mostly positive and mixed reviews upon publication. Generally speaking, reviews were split between those who were sickened by (what they perceived as) the pornographic character of the novel and those who were impressed by Hemingway’s sparse direct prose. Some reviewers critiqued the content of the novel but complimented the author’s writing style. Hemingway’s contemporary Virginia Woolf, for example, critiqued his characters but said of his prose:
Each word pulls its weight in the sentence. And the prevailing atmosphere is fine and sharp, like that of winter days when the boughs are bare against the sky.
The Sun Also Rises and its characters have been variously interpreted by critics and scholars. Some early critics cast the novel as a satire. Others have deemed it a serious literary effort to portray and ultimately condemn the aimless lifestyle of the Lost Generation. In either case, the novel was tremendously successful commercially. Published by Scribner’s in 1926, the first printing of the novel was a relatively small run of 5,090 copies. Less than two months later the novel was in its second printing, with many more printings to come. Following the commercial success of the novel in the U.S., a British edition was published by Jonathan Cape under the title Fiesta in 1927. The novel has been in continuous print since its publication.
The Sun Also Rises established Hemingway as one of the great writers of the 20th century. Today it is considered one of Hemingway’s masterpieces and a classic work of literature.
Haley Bracken