The 19th century
Kant’s death in 1804 formally marked the end of the Enlightenment. The 19th century ushered in new philosophical problems and new conceptions of what philosophy ought to do. It was a century of great philosophical diversity. In the Renaissance, the chief intellectual fact had been the rise of mathematics and natural science, and the tasks that this fact imposed upon philosophy determined its direction for two centuries. In the Enlightenment, attention had turned to the character of the mind that had so successfully mastered the natural world, and rationalists and empiricists had contended for mastery until the Kantian synthesis. As for the 19th century, however, if one single feature of its thought could be singled out for emphasis, it might be called the discovery of the irrational. But many philosophical schools were present, and they contended with each other in a series of distinct and powerful oppositions: pragmatism against idealism, positivism against irrationalism, Marxism against liberalism.
Western philosophy in the 19th century was influenced by several changes in European and American intellectual culture and society. These changes were chiefly the Romantic Movement of the early 19th century, which was a poetic revolt against reason in favour of feeling (see Romanticism); the maturation of the Industrial Revolution, which caused untold misery as well as prosperity and prompted a multitude of philosophies of social reform; the revolutions of 1848 in Paris, Germany, and Vienna, which reflected stark class divisions and first implanted in the European consciousness the concepts of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat; and, finally, the great surge in biological science following the publication of work by Charles Darwin (1809–82) on the theory of evolution. Romanticism influenced both German idealists and philosophers of irrationalism. Experiences of economic discord and social unrest produced the ameliorative social philosophy of English utilitarianism and the revolutionary doctrines of Karl Marx (1818–83). And the developmental ideas of Darwin provided the prerequisites for American pragmatism.
A synoptic view of Western philosophy in the 19th century reveals an interesting chronology. The early century was dominated by the German school of absolute idealism, whose main representatives were Johann Fichte (1762–1814), Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854), and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831). The mid-century was marked by a rebirth of interest in science and its methods, as reflected in the work of Auguste Comte (1798–1857) in France and John Stuart Mill (1806–73) in England, and by liberal (Mill) and radical (Marx) social theory. The late century experienced a second flowering of idealism, this time led by the English philosophers T.H. Green (1836–82), F.H. Bradley (1846–1924), and Bernard Bosanquet (1848–1923), and the rise of American pragmatism, represented by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) and William James (1842–1910). The new philosophies of the irrational, produced by the highly idiosyncratic thinkers Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), ran through the century in its entirety.
The idealism of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel
The Enlightenment, inspired by the example of natural science, had accepted certain boundaries to human knowledge; that is, it had recognized certain limits to reason’s ability to penetrate ultimate reality because that would require methods that surpass the capabilities of scientific method. In this particular modesty, the philosophies of Hume and Kant were much alike. But in the early 19th century the metaphysical spirit returned in a most ambitious and extravagant form. German idealism reinstated the most speculative pretensions of Leibniz and Spinoza. This development was due in part to the influence of Romanticism but also, and more importantly, to a new alliance of philosophy with religion. It was not a coincidence that all the great German idealists were either former students of theology—Fichte at Jena and Leipzig (1780–84), Schelling and Hegel at the Tübingen seminary (1788–95)—or the sons of Protestant pastors. It is probably this circumstance that gave to German idealism its intensely serious, quasi-religious, and dedicated character.
The consequence of this religious alignment was that philosophical interest shifted from Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (in which he had attempted to account for natural science and denied the possibility of certainty in metaphysics) to his Critique of Practical Reason (in which he had explored the nature of the moral self) and his Critique of Judgment (in which he had treated of the purposiveness of the universe as a whole). Absolute idealism was based upon three premises:
- That the chief datum of philosophy is the human self and its self-consciousness.
- That the world as a whole is spiritual through and through—that it is, in fact, something like a cosmic self.
- That, in both the self and the world, it is not primarily the intellectual element that counts but, rather, the volitional and the moral.
Thus, for idealistic metaphysics, the primary task of philosophy was understanding the self, self-consciousness, and the spiritual universe.
The philosophies of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel had much in common. Fichte, professor of philosophy at the newly founded University of Berlin (1809–14), combined in a workable unity the subjectivism of Descartes, the cosmic monism of Spinoza, and the moral intensity of Kant. He conceived of human self-consciousness as the primary metaphysical fact through the analysis of which the philosopher finds his way to the cosmic totality that is “the Absolute.” Just as the moral will is the chief characteristic of the self, so it is also the activating principle of the world. Thus Fichte provided a new definition of philosophizing that made it the most dignified of intellectual pursuits. The sole task of philosophy is “the clarification of consciousness,” and the highest degree of self-consciousness is achieved by philosophers because they alone recognize “Mind,” or “Spirit,” as the central principle of reality.
This line of thought was carried further by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Fichte’s successor at Berlin and perhaps the single most comprehensive and influential thinker of the 19th century. Kant’s problem had been the critical examination of reason’s role in human experience. For Hegel, too, the function of philosophy is to discover the place of reason in nature, in experience, and in reality—to understand the laws according to which reason operates in the world. But whereas Kant had found reason to be the form that mind imposes on the world, Hegel found it to be constitutive of the world itself—not something that mind imposes but something it discovers. Just as Fichte had projected consciousness from mind to reality, so Hegel projected reason. The resulting Hegelian pronouncements—that “the rational is the real” and that “the truth is the whole”—although they express an organic theory of truth and reality, tended to blur the usual distinctions that previous philosophers had made between logic and metaphysics, between subject and object, and between thought and existence; for the basic tenet of idealism, that reality is spiritual, generates just such a vague inclusiveness.
To the Fichtean foundations, however, Hegel added one crucial corollary: that the Absolute, or Whole, which is a concrete universal entity, is not static but undergoes a crucial development over time. Hegel called this evolution “the dialectical process” (see dialectic). By stressing it, Hegel accomplished two things: (1) he indicated that reason itself is not eternal but “historical,” and (2) he thereby gave new meaning and relevance to the changing conditions of human society in history—which added to the philosophical task a cultural dimension that it had not possessed before.
The philosopher’s vocation, in Hegel’s view, is to approach the Absolute through consciousness—to recognize it as Spirit expressing and developing itself (“realizing itself” was his own phrase) in all the manifold facets of human life. Struggle is the essence of spiritual existence, and self-enlargement is its goal. For these reasons, the various branches of intellect and culture, enumerated below, become stages in the unfolding of the “World-Spirit”:
- The psychological characteristics of human beings (habit, appetite, judgment) representing “Subjective Spirit.”
- Human laws, social arrangements, and political institutions (the family, civil society, the state) expressing “Objective Spirit.”
- Human art, religion, and philosophy embodying “Absolute Spirit.”
Therefore, what began in Hegel as a metaphysics of the Absolute ended by becoming a total philosophy of human culture.