Southern defense of the “peculiar institution”
The push to abolish slavery in the United States proved more difficult because slavery was driven by domestic rather than colonial enterprises and was the social and economic base of the plantations of 11 Southern states. Moreover, slavery had gained new vitality when an extremely profitable cotton-based agriculture developed in the South in the early 19th century. Reacting to abolitionist attacks that branded its “peculiar institution” as brutal and immoral, the South intensified its system of slave control, particularly after the Nat Turner revolt of 1831. By that time, American abolitionists had realized the failure of gradualism and persuasion, and they subsequently turned to a more militant policy, demanding immediate abolition by law.
Abolitionism, meanwhile, was in itself a heterogeneous movement. At one end of its spectrum was William Lloyd Garrison, an “immediatist,” the founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society (1833–70), who denounced not only slavery but also the Constitution of the United States for tolerating the evil. His newspaper, The Liberator, lived up to its promise that it would not equivocate in its war against slavery. Garrison’s uncompromising tone infuriated not only Southerners but many Northerners as well and was long treated as though it were typical of abolitionism in general. Actually, it was not. At the other end of the abolitionist spectrum and in between stood such men and women as Theodore Weld, James Gillespie Birney, Gerrit Smith, Theodore Parker, Julia Ward Howe, Lewis Tappan, Salmon P. Chase, and Lydia Maria Child, all of whom represented a variety of stances, all more conciliatory than Garrison’s. James Russell Lowell, whose emotional balance was cited by a biographer as proof that abolitionists need not have been unstable, urged, in contrast to Garrison, that “the world must be healed by degrees.” Also of importance was the work of free Blacks such as David Walker and Robert Forten and formerly enslaved persons such as Frederick Douglass, who had the clearest of all reasons to work for the cause but who shared some broader humanitarian motives with their white coworkers.
American abolitionism laboured under the handicap that it threatened the harmony of North and South in the Union, and it also ran counter to the U.S. Constitution, which left the question of slavery to the individual states. Consequently, many Northerners remained unwilling to adopt abolitionist policy and were distrustful of abolitionist extremism. Abolition did poorly at the polls.
Sectionalism and the American Civil War
But a number of factors combined to give the movement increased momentum, particularly as abolitionism’s cause became caught up in the undercurrents of sectionalism. In the 1840s and ’50s, Northerners and Southerners took increasingly adamant stands on the question of permitting or outlawing slavery in new Western territories, a matter with the potential to alter the regional balance of power in the country. When the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), embodying the principle of popular sovereignty, opened Kansas and Nebraska to slavery—land that had long been reserved for the westward expansion of the free states—Northerners began to organize themselves into an antislavery political party, called in some states the Anti-Nebraska Democratic Party and in others the People’s Party but in most places the Republican Party. There was, moreover, growing revulsion at the ruthlessness of slave hunters under the Fugitive Slave Law (1850), and the far-reaching emotional response to Harriet Beecher Stowe’s antislavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) further strengthened the abolitionist cause.
In 1859 an armed band of abolitionists led by John Brown raided the federal armoury in Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now in West Virginia), in an attempt to initiate an armed rebellion of enslaved persons. Jolted by the assault, the South became convinced that its entire way of life would be irretrievably threatened by the election to the presidency of Abraham Lincoln (November 1860), who was opposed to the spread of slavery into the Western territories. The secession of the Southern states following Lincoln’s election led to the American Civil War (1861–65). The war, which began as a sectional power struggle to preserve the Union, in turn led Lincoln (who had never been an abolitionist) to emancipate enslaved persons in areas of the rebellion by the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and led further to the freeing of all enslaved persons in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865.
Under the pressure of worldwide public opinion, slavery was completely abolished in its last remaining Latin American strongholds, Cuba and Brazil, in 1880–86 and 1883–88 respectively, and thus the enslavement of persons of African descent by legal regimes ceased to exist as a Western phenomenon. See also slavery.