Terracing

Terracing, which is basically grading steep land, such as hillsides, into a series of level benches, was known in antiquity and was practiced thousands of years ago in such divergent areas as the Philippines, Peru, and Central Africa. Today, terracing is of major importance in Japan, Mexico, and parts of the United States, while many other countries, including Israel, Australia, South Africa, Colombia, and Brazil, are increasing productivity through the inauguration of this and other soil-conserving practices.

Colombia provides an example of the modern need for terracing. For many years, the steep slopes used for producing the world-renowned Colombian coffee have been slowly eroding. During the 1960s, experimental work showed that contour planting and terracing would help preserve the land. Farther south, the Brazilian state of São Paulo created a terracing service in 1938. Since then, the program has become a full conservation service.

Irrigation

The usefulness of a full-scale conservation project is seen in the Snowy Mountains Scheme of Australia (1949–74), where three river systems were diverted to convert hundreds of miles of arid but fertile plains to productive land. Intensive soil conservation methods were undertaken wherever the natural vegetation and soil surface had been disturbed. Drainage is controlled by stone and steel drains, grassed waterways, absorption and contour terraces, and settling ponds. Steep slopes are stabilized by woven wickerwork fences, brush matting, and bitumen sprays, followed by revegetation with white clover and willow and poplar trees. Grazing is strictly controlled to prevent silting of the reservoirs and damage to slopes. The two main products of the plan are power for new industries and irrigation water for agriculture, with recreation and a tourist industry as important by-products.

Australia’s Snowy Mountains Scheme is a modern successor, so far as irrigation is concerned, to practices that have provided water for crops almost from the beginnings of agriculture. The simplest method of irrigation was to dip water from a well or spring and pour it on the land. Many types of buckets, ropes, and, later, pulleys were employed. The ancient shadoof, which consists of a long pole pivoted from a beam that has a weight at one end to lift a full bucket of water at the other, is still in use. Conduction of water through ditches from streams was practiced widely in Southwest Asia, in Africa, and in the Americas, where ancient canal systems can be seen. A conduit the Romans built 2,000 years ago to provide a water supply to Tunis is still in use.

Sufficient water at the proper time makes possible the full use of technology in farming—including the proper application of fertilizers, suitable crop rotations, and the use of more productive varieties of crops. Expanding irrigation is an absolute necessity to extend crop acreage in significant amounts; it may be the most productive of possible improvements on present cropland. First, there is the possibility of making wider use of irrigation in districts that already have a high rate of output. Second, there is the possibility of irrigating nonproductive land, especially in arid zones. The greatest immediate economic returns might well come from irrigating productive districts, but irrigation of arid zones has a larger long-range appeal. Most of the arid zones, occupying more than one-third of the landmass of the globe, are in the tropics. Generally, they are rich in solar energy, and their soils are rich in nutrients, but they lack water.

Supplemental irrigation in the United States, used primarily to make up for poor distribution of rainfall during the growing season, has increased substantially since the late 1930s. This irrigation is carried on in the humid areas of the United States almost exclusively with sprinkler systems. The water is conveyed in pipes, usually laid on the surface of the field, and the soil acts as a storage reservoir. The water itself is pumped from a stream, lake, well, or reservoir. American farmers first used sprinkler irrigation about 1900, but the development of lightweight aluminum pipe with quick couplers meant that the pipe could be moved easily and quickly from one location to another, resulting in a notable increase in the use of sprinklers after World War II.

India, where irrigation has been practiced since ancient times, illustrates some of the problems. During the late 20th century, more than 20 percent of the country’s cultivated area was under irrigation. Both large dams, with canals to distribute the water, and small tube, or driven, wells, made by driving a pipe into water or water-bearing sand, controlled by individual farmers, have been used. Some have been affected by salinity, however, as water containing dissolved salts has been allowed to evaporate in the field. Tube wells have helped in these instances by lowering the water table and by providing sufficient water to flush away the salts. The other major problem has been to persuade Indian farmers to level their lands and build the small canals needed to carry the water over the farms. In Egypt, impounding of the Nile River with the Aswān High Dam has been a great boon to agriculture, but it has also reduced the flow of silt into the Nile Valley and adversely affected fishing in the Mediterranean Sea. In arid areas such as the U.S. Southwest, tapping subterranean water supplies has resulted in a lowered water table and, in some instances, land subsidence.

Dry farming

The problem of educating farmers to make effective use of irrigation water is found in many areas. An even greater educational effort is required for dry farming; that is, crop production without irrigation where annual precipitation is less than 20 inches (50 cm).

Dry farming as a system of agriculture was developed in the Great Plains of the United States early in the 20th century. It depended on the efficient storage of the limited moisture in the soil and the selection of crops and growing methods that made best use of this moisture. The system included deep fall plowing, subsurface packing of the soil, thorough cultivation both before and after seeding, light seeding, and alternating-summer fallow, with the land tilled during the season of fallow as well as in crop years. In certain latitudes stubble was left in the fields after harvest to trap snow. Though none of the steps were novel, their systematic combination was new. Systematic dry farming has continued, with substantial modifications, in the Great Plains of Canada and the United States, in Brazil, in South Africa, in Australia, and elsewhere. It is under continuing research by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Vertical Farming and the Future

While no truly new crop has been developed in modern times, new uses and new methods of cultivation of known plants may be regarded as new crops. For example, subsistence and special-use plants, such as the members of the genus Atriplex that are salt-tolerant, have the potential for being developed into new crops. Equally novel is vertical farming, in which crops are grown not in traditional, horizontal rows but atop one another. This growing method conserves space and expands the areas suitable to growing, thereby increasing food production.