The South Semitic, or Sabaean, branch remained within the confines of the Arabian Peninsula for most of its history. It was in use at the beginning of the 1st millennium bce. The most that can be said about its origins is that it neither developed from nor directly depended upon the North Semitic alphabet. It may have been derived, ultimately, from the proto-Sinaitic script, with some influence from the North Semitic. Offshoots from the South Semitic branch include the Minaean, Himyaritic, Qatabanic, and Hadhramautic alphabets in southern Arabia, and Thamudene, Dedanite, and Safaitic alphabets in the northern part of the peninsula. Numerous inscriptions in these alphabets are the principal source for the study of those once-flourishing kingdoms, including Sabaʾ (the biblical Sheba), relegated by the rise of Islam to the backwaters of history.

The Sabaean offshoot, a graceful and elegant script consisting of 29 letters, spread into Africa, where it became the progenitor of the Ethiopic alphabet; this in turn gave birth to the modern Amharic, Tigré, Tigrinya, and other alphabets of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea. These are the only South Semitic scripts still in use today.

The Greek alphabet

As in so many other things, the importance of the ancient Greeks in the history of the alphabet is paramount. All of the alphabets in use in European languages today are directly or indirectly related to the Greek. The Greek achievement was to provide representations for vowel sounds. Consonants plus vowels made a writing system that was both economical and unambiguous. The true alphabetic system has remained for 3,000 years, with only slight modifications, an unparalleled vehicle of expression and communication in and among the most diverse nationalities and languages. The Greek alphabet, created early in the 1st millennium bce, spread in various directions in Asia Minor, Egypt, Italy, and other places, but far and away its most important descendants (in terms of widespread use) were the Latin (through Etruscan) and Cyrillic alphabets.

Theories explaining diffusion

There is no complete agreement among scholars as to how or why certain alphabets have come to dominate much of the world. Some believe that diffusion is explained by the efficiency of the orthography; the Greek alphabet, capable of representing unambiguously a full range of meanings, was adopted throughout western Europe. Others hold that the alphabet follows the flag; that is, that the diffusion of an alphabet results from political and military conquests by the people who use it. Still others hold that the alphabet follows trade or religion. A few examples may illustrate the point: (1) The Latin language and script were carried by Roman legionaries and imperial officers to all parts of the vast Roman Empire, particularly to the regions that were not Hellenized. In later centuries, however, churchmen and missionaries carried the Latin language and script still farther afield. The ascendancy of Latin led to the adoption of the Latin (Roman) alphabet by a large majority of nations; it became used for tongues of the most diverse linguistic groups, not only in Europe but in all other parts of the world as well. (2) Two alphabets, the Cyrillic and the Latin, are used for writing Slavic languages. Cyrillic is used by those Slavic peoples who accepted their religion from Byzantium, whereas Roman Christianity brought the use of the Latin alphabet to the Poles, Lusatians, Wends, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Croats. (3) The Arabic alphabet is, after Latin, the most generally used in Asia and Africa. The rise of Islam in the 7th century ce and the tremendous Islamic expansion and conquest carried the Islamic holy book, the Qurʾān, written in the Arabic alphabet, over a vast area: the Middle East, North and Central Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and even southern Europe. The Arabic alphabet was, therefore, adapted to Semitic and Indo-European forms of speech, to Tatar-Turkish, Iranian, and Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) tongues, and to several African languages. (4) The movement eastward from India of the Indian Brahmi-Buddhist alphabets was much more peaceful than that of the Arabic alphabet. These offshoots, which took root in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines, were again the result of the spreading of a religion—Buddhism—in this case by missionaries.