art and cultural property repatriation

art and cultural property repatriation, the return of art or other cultural objects to their country or culture of origin. It differs from art restitution, which is typically used to describe instances in which a piece of art or other cultural object is returned to an individual, rather than to a country or people. Many discussions of repatriation focus on “cultural property,” a term defined by UNESCO as “property which, on religious or secular grounds, is specifically designated by each State as being of importance for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science.” Over the course of the 20th and into the 21st century, the issue of repatriation has been an important and often contentious topic for museums and other institutions that store, display, and care for cultural property as laws and mores surrounding such items have developed and changed over time.

The repatriation debate

Questions of ownership dominate the debate around repatriation. Proponents of repatriation see cultural objects as belonging to the countries or cultures where they were produced or, in the case of historical or archaeological materials, found. Opponents of repatriation see these materials as part of a universal human culture and argue that, because cultures are neither isolated nor fixed, repatriation proponents are perpetuating a narrow nationalism. Some repatriation proponents in turn argue that the promotion of this universalism is simply a veil for a form of colonialism because “universal” or “encyclopedic” museums are overwhelmingly in wealthy Western countries that gained their collections largely through colonial enterprises.

The legal status of artifacts and other items taken from one country to another is often in dispute. Proponents of repatriation view many of the foreign objects in Western museums as having been taken through illicit or immoral means. They consider objects taken by colonial regimes as having been stolen, because the people of the country that produced them did not have the ability to prevent their removal if they had wanted to keep them. Opponents of repatriation contend that many of the objects were gathered in a way that was considered legal and moral at the time.

International repatriation laws

Although the taking of booty was historically commonplace in times of war, the 19th century saw a change in this attitude. European and North American powers in particular began viewing works of art as part of general human heritage and thus worthy of protection during warfare. This sentiment was perhaps first codified under U.S. Pres. Abraham Lincoln in his issuance of the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field in 1863. This document, also called the Lieber Code for its author Francis Lieber, outlined the rule of conduct for the U.S. Army and included protections for the property of charitable organizations, such as hospitals and churches, and of educational institutions such as universities and museums. Similar themes were included in the Hague Conventions. The second Hague Convention of 1899 forbade the unnecessary destruction or seizure of an enemy’s property as well as the pillaging of any town or place as part of warfare. In 1907 the fourth Hague Convention declared that municipal and institutional property should be treated as private property and prohibited the seizure or damage of monuments, works of art, and works of science.

Despite these regulations, both World War I and World War II saw widespread destruction and looting of monuments and museums. The Nazi pillage of artwork during the latter conflict was of special concern to neighboring European powers in the years after the war. In 1954 another convention at the Hague, aptly called the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, directly addressed how cultural property should be protected in times of conflict. The 1954 convention defined cultural property as a “movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people” and included in its definition pieces of architecture, archaeological sites, works of art, manuscripts and other books, and scientific collections, along with museums, libraries, and other buildings meant to preserve or display movable cultural property. It further required that states party to the convention take preventive measures to protect cultural property.

The protection of cultural property in peacetime is largely governed by the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. The 1970 convention sought to curtail the illegal taking and selling of antiquities from one country to another. In practice this means preventing objects from being illegally taken from source countries—particularly those in Latin America, Africa, and Asia—to market countries, which has historically consisted largely of western European and North American countries. It encouraged cooperation between member states to protect the cultural property of each. Member states were also expected to create inventories of known objects to be protected and impose export and import controls for cultural property. By early 2024 the UNESCO convention of 1970 had been ratified by 145 countries.

Organized by the independent intergovernmental organization the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (Unidroit), the Unidroit Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (1995) created rules to govern the international trade of cultural objects, which it defined as objects that are “of importance for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science.” Under this convention, a claimant, which may be a state or a private party, must prove that an object was taken illegally and that the object is of cultural importance in order for it to be returned. Purchasers of illegally exported cultural materials are entitled to compensation if they can prove that they did not know that the item was stolen. By early 2023 the Unidroit convention had 54 contracting states.

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Repatriation and museums

In the United States, institutions that receive federal funding, including museums and universities, are required to abide by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA; 1990). NAGPRA requires federal agencies and institutions that receive money from the federal government to endeavor to repatriate remains and cultural objects of Indigenous peoples in what is now the United States to the appropriate lineal descendants, tribes, or Native Hawaiian organizations. Such agencies and institutions, including museums and universities, are required to create an inventory of all Native human remains and associated funerary objects in their possession, along with a summary of other cultural items they possess. They must then consult with Indigenous organizations and lineal descendants to identify remains and objects that meet the criteria for repatriation and determine the most appropriate party to receive them. NAGPRA also requires anyone who finds Indigenous human remains or objects on Native land or on land owned by the U.S. government to notify the officials responsible for the land, who must in turn follow procedures for protecting the remains or objects, notifying Native individuals or communities who may have a claim, and removing and transferring the materials. In Canada and New Zealand, repatriation policy is led by museums, causing nonuniform approaches. The Australian government’s Policy on Indigenous Repatriation seeks to address “the injustice of Australia’s shared past as it relates to the removal of ancestral remains and secret sacred objects” by collaborating with state and territorial governments, domestic institutions, and foreign governments and institutions to repatriate such materials to Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples. State and territorial institutions, however, may adhere to their own policies when it comes to dealing with remains and sacred objects.

Not all museum policies or laws surrounding them favor repatriation. The British Museum Act of 1963 prevents objects from being repatriated from the British Museum. The act was originally passed in order to protect works held by the museum by ensuring that items were deaccessioned—sold or otherwise removed from the collection—only if they were damaged, a duplicate, or not of public interest. However, as calls for repatriation have grown in recent years the act has been invoked in order to keep certain objects in the museum. Some exceptions have been made. For example, subsequent acts have allowed for the repatriation of human remains and the restitution of works of art that were stolen particularly from Jewish individuals and families during the Nazi period and eventually sold to the British Museum in the ensuing decades.