The Warsaw Convention of 1929, as amended by the Hague Protocol of 1955, exemplifies still another legislative approach to problems raised by the carriage of goods. It constitutes a major step toward international unification of the rules governing carriage of goods by air. The convention applies to international carriage of persons, luggage, and goods for reward, as well as to gratuitous carriage performed by an air-transport undertaking. It applies whether the aircraft is owned by private persons or by public bodies; but, as to aircraft owned by a state directly, application of the convention may be excluded by appropriate reservation. According to the convention, there is an international carriage when the points of departure and destination are located within different contracting states or within the same contracting state but stopping has been agreed upon in another state, even if that state is not a member of the convention. The convention applies during the time the goods are in the charge of the carrier in any aircraft, airfield, or other facility. It does not apply when goods are carried by a land, sea, or inland-water carrier. Most nations, including the United States and Great Britain, are members of the convention. Only a few nations in South and Central America and in the Middle East have remained outside the convention. Although the convention applies to international carriage only, a great number of contracting states, including France and Great Britain, have made its rules applicable to domestic carriage of goods as well.

The air carrier is liable under the convention for delay and for the loss of or damage to the goods, provided that the occurrence that caused the prejudice took place during the carriage by air. The carrier is relieved from liability if he proves that he had taken all the necessary measures to avoid the damage or that it was impossible for him to take such measures. Unlike carriers by land and by water, the air carrier is not bound to prove the actual cause of the damage and that the damage was not attributable to his fault. If the cause of the damage remains unknown, there is no recovery. Contractual provisions tending to relieve the carrier from liability are null and void, except those concerning limitation of liability for loss or damage attributed to the inherent vice of the goods. Provisions tending to increase the liability of the carrier, however, are valid.

The convention contains provisions as to the jurisdiction of courts in case action is brought against the carrier and establishes a two-year period of limitation for the bringing of actions. No provision is made for liability of the carrier in case of deviation, for a carrier’s lien, or for stoppage in transit, as this term is understood at common law. Accordingly, these matters are governed by the municipal law of the contracting states.

Other international agreements

The international movement of goods may be regulated in certain countries by international agreements other than the Berne Conventions, the Brussels Convention on Limitation of Liability (1923), or the Warsaw Convention of 1929. During the Cold War, the countries of eastern Europe established a uniform regime for the movement of goods by railway that was comparable to that of the Berne Conventions.

Other agreements in the field include the Geneva Convention of 1956 for the carriage of goods by road. The convention became operative in 1961, and its original membership included France, Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia. It applies to international carriage of goods by road for reward, with the exception of certain items, such as mail. Carriage is international if it involves two countries, one of which is a member of the convention. An original feature of the Geneva Convention is that it covers mixed-carrier transportation. It applies for the whole journey, even if the road vehicle has been carried, without being unloaded, by another means of transport, unless there is proof that the damage occurred in a portion of the journey other than that of carriage by road.