During the 3rd century bc the Stoics, particularly Chrysippus (c. 280–c. 206 bc), made important contributions to the study of grammar, linked with the development of Stoic logic. Early in that century the Stoic Crates of Mallus emigrated to the court of King Eumenes II of Pergamum, which the Attalid dynasty had begun to make into a literary centre comparable with, though hardly equal to, Alexandria. Crates probably wrote commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey, characterized by the allegorical interpretation, by faith in the accuracy of Homer’s geography, and by grammatical rigour typical of the Stoic school. Under Stoic influence the Pergamenes tended to stress the element of anomaly in grammar, while the Alexandrians stressed the element of analogy; that is, the Alexandrians insisted on the natural, inherent orderliness of grammar, while the Pergamenes approached the subject as empiricists, being content to organize observations of actual usage into a body of knowledge. But the details of the alleged controversy over this matter are obscure and known largely from suspiciously late sources. If the extant grammar ascribed to Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus active about 120 bc, is genuine, then the Alexandrian school of grammar was by that time already considerably influenced by the Stoics.

During the 1st century bc, by which time Rome was beginning to be the chief centre of Greek scholarship, Philoxenus wrote on Greek dialects, among which he included Latin; he was the first scholar to be aware of the existence of monosyllabic roots. Under Augustus, Tryphon studied the language of prose and made the first study of syntax, the first vocabulary of the written language, and a classification of the so-called figures of speech. About the same time Didymus, known as Chalkenteros (“Brazen-Gutted”), incorporated into huge variorum editions much of the precious material contained in the many commentaries on literature compiled during the Hellenistic Age. This vastly productive scholar was lacking in critical judgment, but it is on his work that the later less extensive commentaries that in part survive depended. Under Tiberius, Theon studied the Hellenistic poets, as well as Pindar.

The 1st century ad saw the beginning of the “Attic Revival,” the movement to imitate the language and style of the classical Athenian writers, which lasted far into the Byzantine period with disastrous effects that have not even yet died away. This resulted in the production of many lexica and manuals meant to help people to write correct Attic, such as the works of Phrynichus, Moeris, and Pollux, all probably dating from the 2nd century ad. At that time much learned work was still being done, but it was becoming increasingly mechanical and repetitive. More and more of the chief writers survived only in selections; texts were being produced, often with commentaries, but these derived mainly from the stores of learning accumulated in the past. However, under Hadrian, Apollonius Dyscolus produced a treatment of syntax that acquired great authority, and his son Herodianus produced the standard treatise on accentuation; they were the last known producers of important original work on grammar.

Christian versus classical scholarship

Christianity proved less hostile to pagan culture than might have been expected. From the 2nd century on, Church Fathers such as Justin, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen used an impressive knowledge of pagan literature to debate with pagan philosophers on equal terms. Prominent on the pagan side was the Neoplatonist Porphyry (c. 234–c. 305). Besides his published attacks on Christianity, he wrote commentaries on Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Plotinus. Even after the triumph of Christianity in 313 under Constantine the Great, pagan and Christian scholars often attended one another’s lectures. The pagan Libanius of Antioch, the most celebrated rhetor of the 4th century and author of the surviving hypotheses of the orations of Demosthenes, taught Theodore of Mopsuestia, St. John Chrysostom, and probably also St. Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus. Basil (c. 329–379) wrote a treatise on the value of pagan literature in which he recommends at least a passing acquaintance with the pagan classics, but he and the other leading Christian authors of his time possessed a good deal more than this. Theodore (c. 350–428/429), bishop of Mopsuestia and leader of the school of Antioch, applied what could be called pagan methods of criticism to the Bible by using his knowledge of history and language to illuminate passages of Scripture. Members of the Christian school of Gaza in the 5th and 6th centuries even wrote dialogues modeled on those of Plato. The school’s leading member, Procopius, invented the catena (“chain”), a commentary on a book of the Bible consisting of a compilation of excerpts from earlier commentaries—something obviously suggested by the variorum editions of classical authors. Notes based on the learned commentaries of the Hellenistic Age now came to be written into the margins of manuscripts; to these scholia is owed most of what is known of ancient scholarship.

The Neoplatonists of the 5th and 6th centuries produced commentaries on Plato, Aristotle, and other philosophers, thus preserving many priceless fragments of earlier philosophical texts now lost. Grammatical work also continued: Proclus wrote a commentary on Hesiod’s Works and Days; Hesychius of Alexandria compiled a Greek lexicon that preserved vocabulary from the Homeric age up to his own time; and Orus contributed to the work on Greek orthography. Education even received some government support; the 4th-century rhetor Themistius described a plan for the creation of a government scriptorium to ensure the survival of important writers, and some 50 years later, in 425, Emperor Theodosius II is said to have set up a university at Constantinople.

The age of Justinian I (527–565) produced the antiquarian works of Johannes Lydus and the geographical gazetteer of Stephanus of Byzantium. The historians of that era, Procopius and Agathias, wrote in the classical tradition of historiography, publishing chronicles of warfare that weighed the influences on historical events of fate and divine retribution. But in 529 Justinian issued an edict closing the schools of pagan philosophy; some philosophical activity continued after that, but the edict marked an era of Christian intolerance of pagan scholarship. During the 7th century the Arab conquests cut off Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from Greek civilization. The Arab threat forced the Byzantine Empire to submit to the rule of vigorous but not well-educated emperors, some of whom were religious fundamentalists opposed to the use of images, or icons, which was a central feature of worship in the Eastern Church. The resulting Iconoclastic Controversy was a major factor in the creation of a dark age of Byzantine culture that lasted from about the middle of the 7th until the beginning of the 9th century.