Latin scholarship
Republic and early empire
From the beginning, Roman scholarship imitated Greek: Hellenistic techniques were applied to the treatment of Latin texts, and Latin grammar adopted Greek categories and terminology. Learned Greeks such as Tyrannion, Alexander Polyhistor, and Parthenius were brought to Rome as prisoners in the Mithradatic Wars. Even before that, as early as about 100 bc, the Roman knight Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus had been teaching and writing about Latin grammar. Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 bc) by his vast learning and prodigious output influenced almost every branch of scholarship; of his 25 books about the Latin language, books v to x survive in nearly complete form. In scholarship as in other matters the early imperial period was one of great achievement. It was the age of commentators such as Gaius Julius Hyginus, who was in charge of the Palatine Library in Rome founded by Augustus; of editors such as Marcus Valerius Probus (c. ad 20–105), who made critical editions of Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace; of grammarians such as Verrius Flaccus, the author of a vast work on the meaning of words; of the elder Pliny (ad 23/24–79), whose encyclopaedic Historia naturalis (Natural History) was a major sourcebook during the Middle Ages; of Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (c. ad 69–after 122), who wrote the lives of poets and grammarians as well as of emperors; and of Aulus Gellius, whose miscellany called Noctes Atticae preserved much ancient learning.
Later empire
The barbarian invasions of the 3rd century marked the beginning of a testing time for Latin as well as for Greek scholarship, and the scholars of the 4th and 5th centuries—such as Aelius Donatus, the grammarian and teacher of rhetoric; Servius, the learned commentator on Virgil; Priscian, the Greek author of the most famous Latin grammar of antiquity; and Macrobius, who during the first half of the 5th century wrote the learned miscellany called Saturnalia—were epitomizers and compilers living on inherited capital. In the Western Empire the knowledge of Greek was practically extinct, and the earlier literature of Rome itself was threatened with extinction. The classics were still the staple of such education as there was, but the dominance of rhetoric favoured only certain authors; classical poets such as Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Terence were protected by critics and commentators, but among earlier authors Ennius and Lucilius disappeared and Plautus narrowly escaped. The book, in the form of the vellum or parchment codex, was superseding the papyrus roll, and authors who were not recopied were doomed to oblivion.
The early Middle Ages
The period during which the Merovingian dynasty founded by Clovis (c. 466–511) was in power was a dark age for learning, but there was no complete breach with the past. Under the influence of the church the barbarian invaders wished to base their civilization on the Latin model, and since it was the language of the church, Latin continued to be the language of literature. Although interest in antiquity for its own sake had little part in the late imperial and early medieval ideal, under the protection of the church learning survived in the medieval schools, and classical texts provided a grounding in grammar, a training in logical thought, and a philosophical premise for theology. Flavius Cassiodorus, a retired statesman who founded a monastery at Vivarium, in southern Italy, sometime after ad 540, encouraged his monks to copy pagan as well as Christian authors, a practice that spread later to other monasteries, particularly those of the Benedictine order. About 563 the Irish missionary Columba (c. 521–597) founded a church and monastery on the island of Iona in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland, and soon afterward Irish missionaries converted the whole of Scotland and established monasteries in the north of England. Later Irish missions led by Columban (c. 543–615) founded Luxovium (Luxeuil) in the Vosges Mountains of Gaul (590), Bobbio on the Trebbia (c. 612–614), and St. Gall in Switzerland; Corbie near Amiens was founded from Luxovium a century later, and these monasteries played a leading role in the preservation of ancient literature. In England, Aldhelm (c. 639–709) and Bede (672/673–735) were men of considerable learning. At this time learning was also alive in Visigothic Spain, as is shown by the vast encyclopaedia of Isidore of Sevilla (c. 560–636), which was of great importance for the remainder of the Middle Ages. During the late 7th and 8th centuries the successors of Columban converted first the Frisians and then much of Germany; they founded the important monasteries of Fulda (744), Lorsch, in Hesse (764), and Hersfeld (c. 770), while Reichenau, on Lake Constance (724), and nearby Murbach (727) were founded by a refugee from Visigothic Spain.
The Carolingian Renaissance
Pippin III the Short (reigned 751–768) began ecclesiastical reforms that Charlemagne continued, and these led to revived interest in classical literature. Charlemagne appointed as head of the cathedral school at Aachen the distinguished scholar and poet Alcuin of York, who had a powerful influence on education in the empire. Many ancient texts were now copied into the new Carolingian minuscule, and the palace library allowed its books to be copied for other libraries, so that learning was rapidly diffused. Latin poetry of some merit was composed at and about the imperial court, and Einhard’s life of Charlemagne (probably written c. 830–833) is modeled on the biographies of Suetonius. Learned work was resumed, and the historian Paul the Deacon (Paulus Diaconus) abridged the abridgement of the lexicon of Verrius Flaccus that had been made by Festus during the 2nd century ad. The nearest approach in the Middle Ages to a humanistic scholar was Servatus Lupus, abbot of Ferrières (c. 805–862), who collected, copied, and excerpted ancient manuscripts on a large scale. Despite the splitting up of the Carolingian Empire in 843 and the troubles resulting from the barbarian attacks on Europe of the 9th and 10th centuries, the educational apparatus created by the so-called Carolingian Renaissance provided enough momentum to keep the classical tradition going until a new impulse arrived to carry it on to fresh developments.
The later Middle Ages
A renewed period of intellectual activity in the ancient Benedictine foundation of Monte Cassino heralded the renaissance of the 12th century. Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) was familiar not only with Virgil but also with Lucan, Statius, and Ovid, and The Divine Comedy’s picture of the cosmos is deeply indebted to Aristotle’s On the Heavens. William of Malmesbury (died c. 1143) and John of Salisbury (1115/20–1180) were considerable Latin scholars. During the 13th century a group of scholars in Padua around Lovato Lovati (1241–1309) and Albertino Mussato (1261–1329) were active humanists. Lovato read Lucretius and Catullus, studied Seneca’s tragedies in the famous Codex Etruscus, and found and read some of the lost books of Livy. Both men wrote Latin poetry, Mussato composing a Senecan tragedy, the Ecerinis, designed to open the eyes of the Paduans to the danger presented by Cangrande della Scala, the tyrant of Verona, by describing the tyrannical conduct of their own former despot, Ezzelino III.
The revival of learning
Renaissance humanism
The humanist movement was consolidated by the generation of Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca; 1304–74). Petrarch actively looked for manuscripts, building up what was for his day a remarkable library, and taught himself to write an elegant classicizing Latin very different from what had been customary during the Middle Ages. Like Politian later, he was a great poet in Italian; but he valued far more than his vernacular poetry his Latin epic Africa, a skillful imitation of the Roman poets. Like almost everyone before Politian, Petrarch knew little or no Greek (on the manuscript of Homer that he possessed, see above, Greek in the West). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–75) also looked actively for ancient manuscripts and actively forwarded the aims of humanism.
The revival of classical learning that Petrarch and Boccaccio promoted was only one aspect of the complex phenomenon of the Renaissance. In origin the movement was utilitarian, seeking to exploit classical antiquity in the service of modern man; the early Italian humanists were not scholars so much as litterati and educators, and it is a mistake to think that they were pagans. The earlier idea that the invention of printing was an effective agent in the revival is also erroneous; for by 1470, when the first editions of the Latin classics were quickly coming off the presses, the Renaissance was already well past its early stages. Thus, although Greek teachers and Greek manuscripts had long before begun to enter Italy, the advanced study of Greek, apart from the activities of an isolated genius like Politian, made little headway before the 16th century. The early humanists saw that the manuscripts they discovered contained many corruptions and enjoyed trying to emend them, but many of their conjectures were frivolous, and they often omitted to mark them as conjectures, a practice that irritated later scholars.
Petrarch’s successor as the leader of the humanist movement was Coluccio Salutati (1331–1406), chancellor of Florence, who acquired many manuscripts and built up a splendid library; it was he who invited Chrysoloras to Florence. A later chancellor, Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), translated into Latin Plutarch, Xenophon, six dialogues of Plato, and Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics. Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459) was the most active and the most successful hunter of manuscripts, traveling to France, Germany, and even England in pursuit of them. The same period saw the beginning of the study of the ancient monuments of Italy and the collection of coins and inscriptions as well as works of art by scholars such as Flavio Biondo (Flavius Blondus; 1392–1463) and later Pomponius Laetus (1428–97). Cyriacus of Ancona (1391–1452) broke new ground by traveling to the countries of the Turkish Empire, where he drew monuments and copied inscriptions, thus providing the only record of many objects that were later lost.
Beginnings of modern scholarship
What may be called professional standards of scholarship are seen first in the work of Lorenzo Valla (1407–57) and Politian (Angelo Poliziano; 1454–94). Valla in his Elegantiae demonstrated the technique of pure and elegant classical Latin, free of medieval awkwardness; when Pope Nicholas V ordered the chief Greek prose writers to be translated into Latin, Valla was responsible for Thucydides. He also translated part of the Iliad into Latin prose. In his philosophical works, which include treatises on pleasure and on free will, he was the first modern to throw light on Epicurus. Gifted with the historical sense of the true critic, Valla perceived the spuriousness of several famous documents: a treatise forged in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, the New Testament convert of St. Paul, by a later writer now called Pseudo-Dionysius; a collection of letters supposedly exchanged by St. Paul and the 1st-century-ad Roman philosopher Seneca; and the so-called Donation of Constantine, by which the emperor Constantine the Great was alleged to have granted to the papacy spiritual and temporal dominion over Rome and the West.
Politian, like Petrarch a great poet in the vernacular, began studying Greek at the age of 10 and attained a better knowledge of it than any modern to that date; in his collection of notes called Miscellanea, the second volume of which was unfortunately lost and was published only in 1972, he threw light on a variety of ancient writers, including even Greek poets of the Hellenistic Age.
By 1500 most of the chief Latin authors were in print. In that year Aldus Manutius (1449–1515) founded in Venice his “Neacademia” (or Aldine Academy), dedicated to, among other things, the issuing of large and relatively cheap editions of ancient authors. Working in conjunction with the learned Cretan Marcus Musurus (1470–1517), he brought out in 21 years 27 editiones principes (first editions) of Greek authors, including five in the year 1502 alone. During the century that followed, the book evolved from what was essentially an expensive facsimile of a medieval manuscript into a working tool for scholars. Other printers, such as the Giunta family in Florence, followed Aldus’ example, and Zacharias Callierges in Rome brought out the first printed texts of Pindar, Callimachus, and the Homeric scholia. Aldus’ son Paulus Manutius (1512–74) carried on his father’s business and did much for the texts of Cicero. Petrus Victorius (1499–1585) was the leading Italian scholar of his time, editing Aeschylus and Euripides and writing commentaries on Aristotle’s Rhetoric, Poetics, Politics, and Nicomachean Ethics, as well as editing other Greek texts and doing important work on Cicero; he concentrated on producing careful editions of the best manuscripts available, in a reaction against the excessive emendation of earlier scholars. Francesco Robortello (1516–67) also did important work on Aeschylus and Aristotle’s Poetics. Fulvius Ursinus (1529–1600) built up the Farnese library in Rome, edited the Greek lyric poets, and made important contributions to numismatics and iconography. Carolus Sigonius (1523–84) and Pirro Ligorio (c. 1510–83) were active in the field of history and antiquities, Ligorio producing much genuine material besides his notorious forgeries. But after the 16th century, the atmosphere of the Counter-Reformation was not favourable to disinterested inquiry, and Italian scholarship declined. The Jesuits in their educational activities made use of the forms of humanism while abolishing its content.
