conflict of laws

conflict of laws, the existence worldwide, and within individual countries, of different legal traditions, different specific rules of private law, and different systems of private law, all of which are administered by court systems similarly subject to different rules and traditions of procedure. The “law of the conflict of laws” pertains to the resolution of problems resulting from such diversity of courts and law.

Defining conflict of laws

Each country’s legal system reflects its society’s values. As a result, national laws and the structure of domestic judicial systems vary considerably from country to country. Nevertheless, many kinds of legal situations or events, such as marriage, decedents’ estates, torts, and business transactions, often are not confined to a single country or even to a single jurisdiction within a country. The courts of each involved country may claim jurisdiction over the matter, and the laws of each involved country may be applicable under certain circumstances. When such conflicts, or differences, exist, procedures need to be in place to resolve them; the term conflict of laws (sometimes also conflicts or conflicts law) describes the body of law of each country or state that is designed to resolve problems arising from the differences between legal systems. Conflict of laws is a term used primarily in the United States, Canada, and, increasingly, the United Kingdom. In most other countries (and historically in the United Kingdom), the term private international law is used. The latter term derives from the civil-law distinction between private and public law, whereby private law addresses the legal relationships between and among individuals, corporations, and even the state in its relations with individuals and corporations when it is not acting in a governmental capacity (for example, in the conclusion of contracts), while public law deals with the law governing state institutions as well as the latter’s governmental—e.g., regulatory—relations with private parties. Private international law thus emphasizes the differences between national legal systems: although the term private international law may aptly describe the subject matter, it may also mislead by suggesting that there is an international body of rules to bridge differences between legal systems. This is emphatically not the case. The term conflict of laws refers primarily to rules that are solely national in origin and are explicitly not part of international law (except insofar as countries have concluded treaties concerning them).

Conflicts law must address three principal questions. First, when a legal problem touches upon more than one country, it must be determined which court has jurisdiction to adjudicate the matter. Second, once a court has taken jurisdiction, it must decide what law it should apply to the question before it. The rules governing the court may direct it to apply its own law or call for the application of the law of another country. Third, assuming that the court ultimately renders a judgment in favour of the plaintiff, conflicts law must address the enforcement of the judgment. In the event that the defendant has insufficient assets locally, recognition and enforcement of the judgment must be sought in a country where assets do exist.

Diversity of legal systems

As noted above, cases of conflict of laws arise from differences between legal systems. Notable differences exist, for example, between countries with a common-law tradition and those employing civil law. In contract law, for example, civil law has no direct counterpart to the common-law requirement that a promise be supported by “consideration”—i.e., by a bargained-for exchange—in order to be binding. Similarly, the systems differ with respect to formalities that may be required for a contract (e.g., a writing). Even within the broad groups of common law and civil law, national legal systems diverge, sometimes substantially. Thus, English substantive law often differs materially from American law, though the two common-law countries share a common tradition and basic methodology. Similarly, civil-law countries differ in many respects in the solutions they provide for specific legal problems, depending on whether they belong to the Nordic, Germanic, or Roman-Franco legal family. In German law, for example, the Commercial Code (Handelsgesetzbuch) prescribes a subjective approach toward defining a merchant: it depends on the person and the purpose and manner of his actions. The French Code de Commerce adopts an objective approach: it is the particular transaction that determines which party in a transaction is the merchant. Older Swedish law focused on the definition of a merchant (köpman); newer legislative provisions employ more comprehensive concepts of those engaged in commerce (näringsidkare). Differences also surround the question of whether a good-faith purchaser can acquire title to goods that have been stolen. The legal systems of some countries (e.g., Italy and many former Soviet-bloc countries) do permit this, while those of other countries (e.g., Germany and Portugal) do not. Others (e.g., France and the Netherlands) attempt to strike a balance between the interests of the parties—for example, by allowing the original owner to recover the goods but requiring him to compensate the good-faith purchaser in some manner.

Other differences in legal and extralegal (extranational) norms may also give rise to problems of conflict of laws. The situations described above generally presuppose unitary legal systems, which may exist in countries with unitary political structures (e.g., France) and in countries organized as federations (e.g., Germany). Some federated countries, however, do not possess a uniform federal private law. In the United States, private law is, mainly, the law of the several U.S. states; American conflicts law is thus both interregional (interstate) and international, with the substantive and conflicts law of Illinois, for example, differing from that of New York, Louisiana, or Indiana. Similarly, in Canada the law of Quebec diverges from that of Ontario or Newfoundland, and in Mexico the law of Chihuahua is not quite the same as that of Michoacán. In Germany and Switzerland the systems of private law are by and large uniform, but minor differences still exist between the laws of the various Länder (states) of Germany and between those of the Swiss cantons. Also, the reunification of Germany in 1990 left some East German law in force for a transitional period. An example of the latter was the right of married couples who resided in the former East Germany to opt, within two years of the date of reunification, for the continued applicability of East German matrimonial property law.

Even in countries whose political structure is unitary rather than federal, regional differences can be found. In the United Kingdom considerable differences exist between the laws of England, Scotland, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, and Northern Ireland. Significant bodies of regional law also exist alongside national private law in France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Thus, in the Alsace-Lorraine area of France, parties may still resort to concepts of German law in matters of locally applicable law (droit local), particularly when the otherwise-governing French law lacks an applicable provision. One such example involves the Handlungsgehilfe, a type of commercial agent for whom there are special rules in German law regarding continued compensation and prohibitions of competition after termination. In this case, specific articles within the local Handelsgesetzbuch apply. Similarly, associations of civil law in Alsace-Lorraine are governed by portions of the 1914 Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, the version of the German Civil Code in use before Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. An organization founded in 1985, the Institut de Droit Local Alsacien-Mosellan, publishes commentary on local law in books and journals such as Revue du droit local. In Spain foral (leasehold) law, rooted in medieval practices and documented in compilaciones, applies in place of the Civil Code (Código Civil) to aspects of family and succession law in many regions, particularly in Navarra, Aragón, and Basque areas. In the Netherlands there are provincial and municipal bylaws, and Aruba and other overseas self-governing parts of the Netherlands have their own laws (staatsregeling).

Legal diversity may be based on religion or ethnicity as well as on territory. Such a situation has existed historically in many Islamic countries. In India the laws concerning matters of the family, including succession upon death, are different for Hindus, Muslims, Parsis, Buddhists, and other religious groups, and in Lebanon and Israel they are different for Muslims, Jews, and the various groups of Christians. American Indian reservations present similar problems when the occurrence of events on a reservation or the affiliation of a person with a reservation results in the application of tribal law rather than the law of the state in which the reservation is located. Membership in an American Indian tribe, for example, may determine the applicable law.

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The imperatives of religious law or the traditions of foreign law may need to be accommodated within the framework of local law and procedures. Examples are the state of New York’s requirement that a party seeking a divorce must remove impediments to the spouse’s ability to remarry (which takes into account the Jewish law that the husband must issue a letter of divorcement—a get—to the wife) and the various ways employed by German courts to accommodate the Morgengabe (a transfer of property in contemplation of marriage within Islamic law) when dealing with questions of support upon divorce under local law.