Milk contains many natural enzymes, and other enzymes are produced in milk as a result of bacterial growth. Enzymes are biological catalysts capable of producing chemical changes in organic substances. Enzyme action in milk systems is extremely important for its effect on the flavour and body of different milk products. Lipases (fat-splitting enzymes), oxidases, proteases (protein-splitting enzymes), and amylases (starch-splitting enzymes) are among the more important enzymes that occur naturally in milk. These classes of enzymes are also produced in milk by microbiological action. In addition, the proteolytic enzyme (i.e., protease) rennin, produced in calves’ stomachs to coagulate milk protein and aid in nutrient absorption, is used to coagulate milk for manufacturing cheese.

The coagulation of milk is an irreversible change of its protein from a soluble or dispersed state to an agglomerated or precipitated condition. Its appearance may be associated with spoilage, but coagulation is a necessary step in many processing procedures. Milk may be coagulated by rennin or other enzymes, usually in conjunction with heat. Left unrefrigerated, milk may naturally sour or coagulate by the action of lactic acid, which is produced by lactose-fermenting bacteria. This principle is utilized in the manufacture of cottage cheese. When milk is pasteurized and continuously refrigerated for two or three weeks, it may eventually coagulate or spoil owing to the action of psychrophilic or proteolytic organisms that are normally present or result from postpasteurization contamination.

Milk fat is present in milk as an emulsion in a water phase. Finely dispersed fat globules in this emulsion are stabilized by a milk protein membrane, which permits the fat to clump and rise. The rising action is called creaming and is expected in all unhomogenized milk. In the United States, when paper cartons supplanted glass bottles, consumers stopped the practice of skimming cream from the top. Processors then introduced homogenization, a method of preventing gravity separation by forcing milk through very small openings under pressure, thus reducing fat globules to one-tenth their original size. Homogenization is practiced in many dairy processes in order to improve the physical properties of products (see below Processing).

Milk and other dairy products are very susceptible to developing off-flavours. Some flavours, given such names as “feed,” “barny,” or “unclean,” are absorbed from the food ingested by the cow and from the odours in its surroundings. Others develop through microbial action due to growth of bacteria in large numbers. Chemical changes can also take place through enzyme action, contact with metals (such as copper), or exposure to sunlight or strong fluorescent light. Quality-control directors are constantly striving to avoid off-flavours in milk and other dairy foods.

Quality concerns

Raw milk is a potentially dangerous food that must be processed and protected to assure its safety for humans. While most bovine diseases, such as brucellosis and tuberculosis, have been eliminated, many potential human pathogens inhabit the dairy farm environment. Therefore, it is essential that all milk be either pasteurized or (in the case of cheese) held for at least 60 days if made from raw milk. While milk from healthy cows is often totally bacteria-free, that condition quickly changes when milk is exposed to the farm environment.

Milk received at the processing plant is tested before being unloaded from either farm-based tank trucks or over-the-road tankers. The milk is checked for odour, appearance, proper temperature, acidity, bacteria, and the presence of drug residues. These tests take no longer than 10 to 15 minutes. If the tank load passes these tests, the milk is pumped into the plant’s refrigerated storage tanks. The milk is then stored for the shortest possible time.

Processing

Essential steps in the processing of fluid milk into various dairy products are shown in the figure.

Pasteurization

Pasteurization is most important in all dairy processing. It is the biological safeguard which ensures that all potential pathogens are destroyed. Extensive studies have determined that heating milk to 63 °C (145 °F) for 30 minutes or 72 °C (161 °F) for 15 seconds kills the most resistant harmful bacteria. In actual practice these temperatures and times are exceeded, thereby not only ensuring safety but also extending shelf life.

Most milk today is pasteurized by the continuous high-temperature short-time (HTST) method (72 °C or 161 °F for 15 seconds or above). The HTST method is conducted in a series of stainless steel plates and tubes, with the hot pasteurized milk on one side of the plate being cooled by the incoming raw milk on the other side. This “regeneration” can be more than 90 percent efficient and greatly reduces the cost of heating and cooling. There are many fail-safe controls on an approved pasteurizer system to ensure that all milk is completely heated for the full time and temperature requirement. If the monitoring instruments detect that something is wrong, an automatic flow diversion valve will prevent the milk from moving on to the next processing stage. Higher temperatures and sometimes longer holding times are required for the pasteurization of milk or cream with a high fat or sugar content.

Pasteurized milk is not sterile and is expected to contain small numbers of harmless bacteria. Therefore, the milk must be immediately cooled to below 4.4 °C (40 °F) and protected from any outside contamination. The shelf life for high-quality pasteurized milk is about 14 days when properly refrigerated.

Extended shelf life can be achieved through ultrapasteurization. In this case, milk is heated to 138 °C (280 °F) for two seconds and aseptically placed in sterile conventional milk containers. Ultrapasteurized milk and cream must be refrigerated and will last at least 45 days. This process does minimal damage to the flavour and extends the shelf life of slow-selling products such as cream, eggnog, and lactose-reduced milks.

Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) pasteurization is the same heating process as ultrapasteurization (138 °C or 280 °F for two seconds), but the milk then goes into a more substantial container—either a sterile five-layer laminated “box” or a metal can. This milk can be stored without refrigeration and has a shelf life of six months to a year. Products handled in this manner do not taste as fresh, but they are useful as an emergency supply or when refrigeration is not available.