Levels of environmental law
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Environmental law exists at many levels and is only partly constituted by international declarations, conventions, and treaties. The bulk of environmental law is statutory—i.e., encompassed in the enactments of legislative bodies—and regulatory—i.e., generated by agencies charged by governments with protection of the environment.
In addition, many countries have included some right to environmental quality in their national constitutions. Since 1994, for example, environmental protection has been enshrined in the German Grundgesetz (“Basic Law”), which now states that the government must protect for “future generations the natural foundations of life.” Similarly, the Chinese constitution declares that the state “ensures the rational use of natural resources and protects rare animals and plants”; the South African constitution recognizes a right to “an environment that is not harmful to health or well-being; and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations”; the Bulgarian constitution provides for a “right to a healthy and favourable environment, consistent with stipulated standards and regulations”; and the Chilean constitution contains a “right to live in an environment free from contamination.”
Much environmental law also is embodied in the decisions of international, national, and local courts. Some of it is manifested in arbitrated decisions, such as the Trail Smelter arbitration (1941), which enjoined the operation of a smelter located in British Columbia, Canada, near the international border with the U.S. state of Washington and held that “no State has the right to use or permit the use of its territory in such a manner as to cause injury by fumes in or to the territory of another or the properties or persons therein.” Some environmental law also appears in the decisions of national courts. For example, in Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission (1965), a U.S. federal appeals court voided a license granted by the Federal Power Commission for the construction of an environmentally damaging pumped-storage hydroelectric plant (i.e., a plant that would pump water from a lower to an upper reservoir) in an area of stunning natural beauty, demonstrating that the decisions of federal agencies could be successfully challenged in the courts. Significant local decisions included National Audubon Society v. Superior Court (1976), in which the California Supreme Court dramatically limited the ability of the Los Angeles to divert water that might otherwise fill Mono Lake in California’s eastern desert.
Types of environmental law
Command-and-control legislation
Most environmental law falls into a general category of laws known as “command and control.” Such laws typically involve three elements: (1) identification of a type of environmentally harmful activity, (2) imposition of specific conditions or standards on that activity, and (3) prohibition of forms of the activity that fail to comply with the imposed conditions or standards. The United States Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), for example, regulates “discharges” of “pollutants” into “navigable waters of the United States.” All three terms are defined in the statute and agency regulations and together identify the type of environmentally harmful activity subject to regulation. In 1983 Germany passed a national emission-control law that set specific air emission thresholds by power plant age and type. Almost all environmental laws prohibit regulated activities that do not comply with stated conditions or standards. Many make a “knowing” (intentional) violation of such standards a crime.
The most obvious forms of regulated activity involve actual discharges of pollutants into the environment (e.g., air, water, and groundwater pollution). However, environmental laws also regulate activities that entail a significant risk of discharging harmful pollutants (e.g., the transportation of hazardous waste, the sale of pesticides, and logging). For actual discharges, environmental laws generally prescribe specific thresholds of allowable pollution; for activities that create a risk of discharge, environmental laws generally establish management practices to reduce that risk.
The standards imposed on actual discharges generally come in two forms: (1) environmental-quality, or ambient, standards, which fix the maximum amount of the regulated pollutant or pollutants tolerated in the receiving body of air or water, and (2) emission, or discharge, standards, which regulate the amount of the pollutant or pollutants that any “source” may discharge into the environment. Most comprehensive environmental laws impose both environmental-quality and discharge standards and endeavour to coordinate their use to achieve a stated environmental-quality goal. Environmental-quality goals can be either numerical or narrative. Numerical targets set a specific allowable quantity of a pollutant (e.g., 10 micrograms of carbon monoxide per cubic metre of air measured over an eight-hour period). Narrative standards require that the receiving body of air or water be suitable for a specific use (e.g., swimming).
The management practices prescribed for activities that create a risk of discharge are diverse and context-specific. The United States Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1991), for example, requires drip pads for containers in which hazardous waste is accumulated or stored, and the United States Oil Pollution Act (1990) mandates that all oil tankers of a certain size and age operating in U.S. waters be double-hulled.
Another type of activity regulated by command-and-control legislation is environmentally harmful trade. Among the most-developed regulations are those on trade in wildlife. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1973), for example, authorizes signatories to the convention to designate species “threatened with extinction which are or may be affected by trade.” Once a plant or animal species has been designated as endangered, countries generally are bound to prohibit import or export of that species except in specific limited circumstances. In 1989 listing of the African elephant as a protected species effectively prohibited most trade in African ivory, which was subsequently banned by Kenya and the EC. By this time the United States already had banned trade in African ivory, listing the African elephant as a threatened species under its Federal Endangered Species Act (1978). Despite these measures, some countries either failed to prohibit ivory imports (e.g., Japan) or refused to prohibit ivory exports (e.g., Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe), and elephants continued to face danger from poachers and smugglers.
Environmental assessment mandates
Environmental assessment mandates are another significant form of environmental law. Such mandates generally perform three functions: (1) identification of a level or threshold of potential environmental impact at which a contemplated action is significant enough to require the preparation of an assessment, (2) establishment of specific goals for the assessment mandated, and (3) setting of requirements to ensure that the assessment will be considered in determining whether to proceed with the action as originally contemplated or to pursue an alternative action. Unlike command-and-control regulations, which may directly limit discharges into the environment, mandated environmental assessments protect the environment indirectly by increasing the quantity and quality of publicly available information on the environmental consequences of contemplated actions. This information potentially improves the decision making of government officials and increases the public’s involvement in the creation of environmental policy.
The United States National Environmental Policy Act (1969) requires the preparation of an environmental impact statement for any “major federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment.” The statement must analyze the environmental impact of the proposed action and consider a range of alternatives, including a so-called “no-action alternative.” The statute and regulations imposed by the Council on Environmental Quality, which was established under the 1969 act to coordinate federal environmental initiatives, require federal agencies to wait until environmental impact statements have been completed before taking actions that would preclude alternatives. Similarly, the European Union (EU) requires an environmental impact assessment for two types of projects. So-called “annex-I Projects” (e.g., oil refineries, toxic waste landfills, and thermal power stations with heat output of 300 or more megawatts) are generally subject to the requirement, and “annex-II Projects” (e.g., activities in chemical, food, textile, leather, wood, and paper industries) are subject to an environmental impact assessment only where “member states consider that their characteristics so require.” Such assessments must describe and evaluate the direct and indirect effects of the project on humans, fauna, flora, soil, water, air, climate, and landscape and the interaction between them.
Economic incentives
The use of economic instruments to create incentives for environmental protection is a popular form of environmental law. Such incentives include pollution taxes, subsidies for clean technologies and practices, and the creation of markets in either environmental protection or pollution. Denmark, The Netherlands, and Sweden, for example, impose taxes on carbon dioxide emissions, and the EU has debated whether to implement such a tax at the supranational level to combat climate change. In the United States, water pollution legislation passed in 1972 provided subsidies to local governments to upgrade publicly owned sewage treatment plants. In 1980 the U.S. government, prompted in part by the national concern inspired by industrial pollution in the Love Canal neighbourhood in Niagara Falls, New York, created a federal “superfund” that used general revenues and revenue from taxes on petrochemical feedstocks, crude oil, and general corporate income to finance the cleanup of more than 1,000 sites polluted by hazardous substances.
By the 1990s, “tradable allowance schemes”, which permit companies to buy and sell “pollution credits,” or legal rights to produce specified amounts of pollution, had been implemented in the United States. The most comprehensive and complex such program, created as part of the 1990 Clean Air Act, was designed to reduce overall sulfur dioxide emissions by fossil-fuel-fired power plants. According to proponents, the program would provide financial rewards to cleaner plants, which could sell their unneeded credits on the market, and allow dirtier plants to stay in business while they converted to cleaner technologies.
Set-aside schemes
A final method of environmental protection is the setting aside of lands and waters in their natural state. In the United States, for example, the vast majority of the land owned by the federal government (about one-third of the total land area of the country) can be developed only with the approval of a federal agency. Europe has an extensive network of national parks and preserves on both public and private land, and there are extensive national parks in southern and eastern Africa in which wildlife is protected. Arguably, the large body of law that regulates use of public lands and publicly held resources is “environmental law.” Some, however, maintain that it is not.
Many areas of law can be characterized as both “set aside” and regulatory. For example, international efforts to preserve wetlands have focused on setting aside areas of ecological value, including wetlands, and on regulating their use. The Ramsar Convention provides that wetlands are a significant “economic, cultural, scientific and recreational” resource, and a section of the Clean Water Act, the primary U.S. law for the protection of wetlands, contains a prohibition against unpermitted discharges of “dredge and fill material” into any “waters of the United States.”
