Principles of environmental law
The design and application of modern environmental law have been shaped by a set of principles and concepts outlined in publications such as Our Common Future (1987), published by the World Commission on Environment and Development, and the Earth Summit’s Rio Declaration (1992).
The precautionary principle
As discussed above, environmental law regularly operates in areas complicated by high levels of scientific uncertainty. In the case of many activities that entail some change to the environment, it is impossible to determine precisely what effects the activity will have on the quality of the environment or on human health. It is generally impossible to know, for example, whether a certain level of air pollution will result in an increase in mortality from respiratory disease, whether a certain level of water pollution will reduce a healthy fish population, or whether oil development in an environmentally sensitive area will significantly disturb the native wildlife. The precautionary principle requires that, if there is a strong suspicion that a certain activity may have environmentally harmful consequences, it is better to control that activity now rather than to wait for incontrovertible scientific evidence. This principle is expressed in the Rio Declaration, which stipulates that, where there are “threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.” In the United States the precautionary principle was incorporated into the design of habitat-conservation plans required under the aegis of the Endangered Species Act. In 1989 the EC invoked the precautionary principle when it banned the importation of U.S. hormone-fed beef, and in 2000 the organization adopted the principle as a “full-fledged and general principle of international law.” In 1999 Australia and New Zealand invoked the precautionary principle in their suit against Japan for its alleged overfishing of southern bluefin tuna.
The prevention principle
Although much environmental legislation is drafted in response to catastrophes, preventing environmental harm is cheaper, easier, and less environmentally dangerous than reacting to environmental harm that already has taken place. The prevention principle is the fundamental notion behind laws regulating the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste and laws regulating the use of pesticides. The principle was the foundation of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989), which sought to minimize the production of hazardous waste and to combat illegal dumping. The prevention principle also was an important element of the EC’s Third Environmental Action Programme, which was adopted in 1983.
The “polluter pays” principle
Since the early 1970s the “polluter pays” principle has been a dominant concept in environmental law. Many economists claim that much environmental harm is caused by producers who “externalize” the costs of their activities. For example, factories that emit unfiltered exhaust into the atmosphere or discharge untreated chemicals into a river pay little to dispose of their waste. Instead, the cost of waste disposal in the form of pollution is borne by the entire community. Similarly, the driver of an automobile bears the costs of fuel and maintenance but externalizes the costs associated with the gases emitted from the tailpipe. Accordingly, the purpose of many environmental regulations is to force polluters to bear the real costs of their pollution, though such costs often are difficult to calculate precisely. In theory, such measures encourage producers of pollution to make cleaner products or to use cleaner technologies. The “polluter pays” principle underlies U.S. laws requiring the cleanup of releases of hazardous substances, including oil. One such law, the Oil Pollution Act (1990), was passed in reaction to the spillage of some 11 million gallons (41 million litres) of oil into Prince William Sound in Alaska in 1989. The “polluter pays” principle also guides the policies of the EU and other governments throughout the world. A 1991 ordinance in Germany, for example, held businesses responsible for the costs of recycling or disposing of their products’ packaging, up to the end of the product’s life cycle; however, the German Federal Constitutional Court struck down the regulation as unconstitutional. Such policies also have been adopted at the regional or state level; in 1996 the U.S. state of Florida, in order to protect its environmentally sensitive Everglades region, incorporated a limited “polluter pays” provision into its constitution.
The integration principle
Environmental protection requires that due consideration be given to the potential consequences of environmentally fateful decisions. Various jurisdictions (e.g., the United States and the EU) and business organizations (e.g., the U.S. Chamber of Commerce) have integrated environmental considerations into their decision-making processes through environmental-impact-assessment mandates and other provisions.
The public participation principle
Decisions about environmental protection often formally integrate the views of the public. Generally, government decisions to set environmental standards for specific types of pollution, to permit significant environmentally damaging activities, or to preserve significant resources are made only after the impending decision has been formally and publicly announced and the public has been given the opportunity to influence the decision through written comments or hearings. In many countries citizens may challenge in court or before administrative bodies government decisions affecting the environment. These citizen lawsuits have become an important component of environmental decision making at both the national and the international level.
Public participation in environmental decision making has been facilitated in Europe and North America by laws that mandate extensive public access to government information on the environment. Similar measures at the international level include the Rio Declaration and the 1998 Århus Convention, which committed the 40 European signatory states to increase the environmental information available to the public and to enhance the public’s ability to participate in government decisions that affect the environment. During the 1990s the Internet became a primary vehicle for disseminating environmental information to the public.