Since the 1980s another technique for determining the validity of arguments in either PC or LPC has gained some popularity, owing both to its ease of learning and to its straightforward implementation by computer programs. Originally suggested by the Dutch logician Evert W. Beth, it was more fully developed and publicized by the American mathematician and logician Raymond M. Smullyan. Resting on the observation that it is impossible for the premises of a valid argument to be true while the conclusion is false, this method attempts to interpret (or evaluate) the premises in such a way that they are all simultaneously satisfied and the negation of the conclusion is also satisfied. Success in such an effort would show the argument to be invalid, while failure to find such an interpretation would show it to be valid.

The construction of a semantic tableau proceeds as follows: express the premises and negation of the conclusion of an argument in PC using only negation (∼) and disjunction (∨) as propositional connectives. Eliminate every occurrence of two negation signs in a sequence (e.g., ∼∼∼∼∼a becomes ∼a). Now construct a tree diagram branching downward such that each disjunction is replaced by two branches, one for the left disjunct and one for the right. The original disjunction is true if either branch is true. Reference to De Morgan’s laws shows that a negation of a disjunction is true just in case the negations of both disjuncts are true [i.e., ∼(p ∨ q) ≡ (∼p · ∼q)]. This semantic observation leads to the rule that the negation of a disjunction becomes one branch containing the negation of each disjunct:

Consider the following argument:

Write:

Now strike out the disjunction and form two branches:

Only if all the sentences in at least one branch are true is it possible for the original premises to be true and the conclusion false (equivalently for the negation of the conclusion). By tracing the line upward in each branch to the top of the tree, one observes that no valuation of a in the left branch will result in all the sentences in that branch receiving the value true (because of the presence of a and ∼a). Similarly, in the right branch the presence of b and ∼b makes it impossible for a valuation to result in all the sentences of the branch receiving the value true. These are all the possible branches; thus, it is impossible to find a situation in which the premises are true and the conclusion false. The original argument is therefore valid.

This technique can be extended to deal with other connectives:

Furthermore, in LPC, rules for instantiating quantified wffs need to be introduced. Clearly, any branch containing both (∀x)ϕx and ∼ϕy is one in which not all the sentences in that branch can be simultaneously satisfied (under the assumption of ω-consistency; see metalogic). Again, if all the branches fail to be simultaneously satisfiable, the original argument is valid.

Special systems of LPC

LPC as expounded above may be modified by either restricting or extending the range of wffs in various ways:

• 1.Partial systems of LPC. Some of the more important systems produced by restriction are here outlined:

  • a.It may be required that every predicate variable be monadic while still allowing an infinite number of individual and predicate variables. The atomic wffs are then simply those consisting of a predicate variable followed by a single individual variable. Otherwise, the formation rules remain as before, and the definition of validity is also as before, though simplified in obvious ways. This system is known as the monadic LPC; it provides a logic of properties but not of relations. One important characteristic of this system is that it is decidable. (The introduction of even a single dyadic predicate variable, however, would make the system undecidable, and, in fact, even the system that contains only a single dyadic predicate variable and no other predicate variables at all has been shown to be undecidable.)
  • b.A still simpler system can be formed by requiring (1) that every predicate variable be monadic, (2) that only a single individual variable (e.g., x) be used, (3) that every occurrence of this variable be bound, and (4) that no quantifier occur within the scope of any other. Examples of wffs of this system are (∀x)[ϕx ⊃ (ψx · χx)] (“Whatever is ϕ is both ψ and χ”); (∃x)(ϕx · ∼ψx) (“There is something that is ϕ but not ψ”); and (∀x)(ϕx ⊃ ψx) ⊃ (∃x)(ϕx · ψx) (“If whatever is ϕ is ψ, then something is both ϕ and ψ”). The notation for this system can be simplified by omitting x everywhere and writing ∃ϕ for “Something is ϕ,” ∀(ϕ ⊃ ψ) for “Whatever is ϕ is ψ,” and so on. Although this system is more rudimentary even than the monadic LPC (of which it is a fragment), the forms of a wide range of inferences can be represented in it. It is also a decidable system, and decision procedures of an elementary kind can be given for it.
• 2.Extensions of LPC. More elaborate systems, in which a wider range of propositions can be expressed, have been constructed by adding to LPC new symbols of various types. The most straightforward of such additions are:

  • a.One or more individual constants (say, a, b, …): these constants are interpreted as names of specific individuals; formally they are distinguished from individual variables by the fact that they cannot occur within quantifiers; e.g., (∀x) is a quantifier but (∀a) is not.
  • b.One or more predicate constants (say, A, B, …), each of some specified degree, thought of as designating specific properties or relations.

A further possible addition, which calls for somewhat fuller explanation, consists of symbols designed to stand for functions. The notion of a function may be sufficiently explained for present purposes as follows. There is said to be a certain function of n arguments (or, of degree n) when there is a rule that specifies a unique object (called the value of the function) whenever all the arguments are specified. In the domain of human beings, for example, “the mother of —” is a monadic function (a function of one argument), since for every human being there is a unique individual who is his mother; and in the domain of the natural numbers (i.e., 0, 1, 2, …), “the sum of — and —” is a function of two arguments, since for any pair of natural numbers there is a natural number that is their sum. A function symbol can be thought of as forming a name out of other names (its arguments); thus, whenever x and y name numbers, “the sum of x and y” also names a number, and similarly for other kinds of functions and arguments.

To enable functions to be expressed in LPC there may be added:

• c.One or more function variables (say, f, g, …) or one or more function constants (say, F, G, …) or both, each of some specified degree. The former are interpreted as ranging over functions of the degrees specified and the latter as designating specific functions of that degree.

When any or all of a–c are added to LPC, the formation rules listed in the first paragraph of the section on the lower predicate calculus (see above The lower predicate calculus) need to be modified to enable the new symbols to be incorporated into wffs. This can be done as follows: A term is first defined as either (1) an individual variable or (2) an individual constant or (3) any expression formed by prefixing a function variable or function constant of degree n to any n terms (these terms—the arguments of the function symbol—are usually separated by commas and enclosed in parentheses). Formation rule 1 is then replaced by:

• 1′.An expression consisting of a predicate variable or predicate constant of degree n followed by n terms is a wff.

The axiomatic basis given in the section on the axiomatization of LPC (see above Axiomatization of LPC) also requires the following modification: in axiom schema 2 any term is allowed to replace a when β is formed, provided that no variable that is free in the term becomes bound in β. The following examples will illustrate the use of the aforementioned additions to LPC: let the values of the individual variables be the natural numbers; let the individual constants a and b stand for the numbers 2 and 3, respectively; let A mean “is prime”; and let F represent the dyadic function “the sum of.” Then AF(a,b) expresses the proposition “The sum of 2 and 3 is prime,” and (∃x) AF(x,a) expresses the proposition “There exists a number such that the sum of it and 2 is prime.”

The introduction of constants is normally accompanied by the addition to the axiomatic basis of special axioms containing those constants, designed to express principles that hold of the objects, properties, relations, or functions represented by them—though they do not hold of objects, properties, relations, or functions in general. It may be decided, for example, to use the constant A to represent the dyadic relation “is greater than” (so that Axy is to mean “x is greater than y” and so forth). This relation, unlike many others, is transitive; i.e., if one object is greater than a second and that second is in turn greater than a third, then the first is greater than the third. Hence, the following special axiom schema might be added: if t₁, t₂, and t₃ are any terms, then (At₁t₂ · At₂t₃) ⊃ At₁t₃ is an axiom. By such means systems can be constructed to express the logical structures of various particular disciplines. The area in which most work of this kind has been done is that of natural-number arithmetic.

PC and LPC are sometimes combined into a single system. This may be done most simply by adding propositional variables to the list of LPC primitives, adding a formation rule to the effect that a propositional variable standing alone is a wff, and deleting “LPC” in axiom schema 1. This yields as wffs such expressions as (p ∨ q) ⊃ (∀x)ϕx and (∃x)[p ⊃ (∀y)ϕxy].

• 3.LPC-with-identity. The word “is” is not always used in the same way. In a proposition such as (1) “Socrates is snub-nosed,” the expression preceding the “is” names an individual and the expression following it stands for a property attributed to that individual. But, in a proposition such as (2) “Socrates is the Athenian philosopher who drank hemlock,” the expressions preceding and following the “is” both name individuals, and the sense of the whole proposition is that the individual named by the first is the same individual as the individual named by the second. Thus, in 2 “is” can be expanded to “is the same individual as,” whereas in 1 it cannot. As used in 2, “is” stands for a dyadic relation—namely, identity—that the proposition asserts to hold between the two individuals. An identity proposition is to be understood in this context as asserting no more than this; in particular it is not to be taken as asserting that the two naming expressions have the same meaning. A much-discussed example to illustrate this last point is “The morning star is the evening star.” It is false that the expressions “the morning star” and “the evening star” mean the same, but it is true that the object referred to by the former is the same as that referred to by the latter (the planet Venus).

To enable the forms of identity propositions to be expressed, a dyadic predicate constant is added to LPC, for which the most usual notation is = (written between, rather than before, its arguments). The intended interpretation of x = y is that x is the same individual as y, and the most convenient reading is “x is identical with y.” Its negation ∼(x = y) is commonly abbreviated as x ≠ y. To the definition of an LPC model given earlier (see above Validity in LPC) there is now added the rule (which accords in an obvious way with the intended interpretation) that the value of x = y is to be 1 if the same member of D is assigned to both x and y and that otherwise its value is to be 0; validity can then be defined as before. The following additions (or some equivalent ones) are made to the axiomatic basis for LPC: the axiom x = x and the axiom schema that, where a and b are any individual variables and α and β are wffs that differ only in that, at one or more places where α has a free occurrence of a, β has a free occurrence of b, (a = b) ⊃ (α ⊃ β) is an axiom. Such a system is known as a lower-predicate-calculus-with-identity; it may of course be further augmented in the other ways referred to above in “Extensions of LPC,” in which case any term may be an argument of =.

Identity is an equivalence relation; i.e., it is reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive. Its reflexivity is directly expressed in the axiom x = x, and theorems expressing its symmetry and transitivity can easily be derived from the basis given.

Certain wffs of LPC-with-identity express propositions about the number of things that possess a given property. “At least one thing is ϕ” could, of course, already be expressed by (∃x)ϕx; “At least two distinct (nonidentical) things are ϕ” can now be expressed by (∃x)(∃y)(ϕx · ϕy · x ≠ y); and the sequence can be continued in an obvious way. “At most one thing is ϕ” (i.e., “No two distinct things are both ϕ”) can be expressed by the negation of the last-mentioned wff or by its equivalent, (∀x)(∀y)[(ϕx · ϕy) ⊃ x = y], and the sequence can again be easily continued. A formula for “Exactly one thing is ϕ” may be obtained by conjoining the formulas for “At least one thing is ϕ” and “At most one thing is ϕ,” but a simpler wff equivalent to this conjunction is (∃x)[ϕx · (∀y)(ϕy ⊃ x = y)], which means “There is something that is ϕ, and anything that is ϕ is that thing.” The proposition “Exactly two things are ϕ” can be represented by (∃x)(∃y){ϕx · ϕy · x ≠ y · (∀z)[ϕz ⊃ (z = x ∨ z = y)]}; i.e., “There are two nonidentical things each of which is ϕ, and anything that is ϕ is one or the other of these.” Clearly, this sequence can also be extended to give a formula for “Exactly n things are ϕ” for every natural number n. It is convenient to abbreviate the wff for “Exactly one thing is ϕ” to (∃!x)ϕx. This special quantifier is frequently read aloud as “E-Shriek x.”

Definite descriptions

When a certain property ϕ belongs to one and only one object, it is convenient to have an expression that names that object. A common notation for this purpose is (ιx)ϕx, which may be read as “the thing that is ϕ” or more briefly as “the ϕ.” In general, where a is any individual variable and α is any wff, (ιa)α then stands for the single value of a that makes α true. An expression of the form “the so-and-so” is called a definite description; and (ιx), known as a description operator, can be thought of as forming a name of an individual out of a proposition form. (ιx) is analogous to a quantifier in that, when prefixed to a wff α, it binds every free occurrence of x in α. Relettering of bound variables is also permissible; in the simplest case, (ιx)ϕx and (ιy)ϕy can each be read simply as “the ϕ.”

As far as formation rules are concerned, definite descriptions can be incorporated into LPC by letting expressions of the form (ιa)α count as terms; rule 1′ above, in “Extensions of LPC,” will then allow them to occur in atomic formulas (including identity formulas). “The ϕ is (i.e., has the property) ψ” can then be expressed as ψ(ιx)ϕx; “y is (the same individual as) the ϕ” as y = (ιx)ϕx; “The ϕ is (the same individual as) the ψ” as (ιx)ϕx = (ιy)ψy; and so forth.

The correct analysis of propositions containing definite descriptions has been the subject of considerable philosophical controversy. One widely accepted account, however—substantially that presented in Principia Mathematica and known as Russell’s theory of descriptions—holds that “The ϕ is ψ” is to be understood as meaning that exactly one thing is ϕ and that thing is also ψ. In that case it can be expressed by a wff of LPC-with-identity that contains no description operators—namely, (1) (∃x)[ϕx · (∀y)(ϕy ⊃ x = y) · ψx]. Analogously, “y is the ϕ” is analyzed as “y is ϕ and nothing else is ϕ” and hence as expressible by (2) ϕy · (∀x)(ϕx ⊃ x = y). “The ϕ is the ψ” is analyzed as “Exactly one thing is ϕ, exactly one thing is ψ, and whatever is ϕ is ψ” and hence as expressible by (3) (∃x)[ϕx · (∀y)(ϕy ⊃ x = y)] · (∃x)[ψx · (∀y)(ψy ⊃ x = y)] · (∀x)(ϕx ⊃ ψx). ψ(ιx)ϕx, y = (ιx)ϕx and (ιx)ϕx = (ιy)ψy can then be regarded as abbreviations for (1), (2), and (3), respectively; and by generalizing to more complex cases, all wffs that contain description operators can be regarded as abbreviations for longer wffs that do not.

The analysis that leads to (1) as a formula for “The ϕ is ψ” leads to the following for “The ϕ is not ψ”: (4) (∃x)[ϕx · (∀y)(ϕy ⊃ x = y) · ∼ψx]. It is important to note that (4) is not the negation of (1); this negation is, instead, (5) ∼(∃x)[ϕx · (∀y)(ϕy ⊃ x = y) · ψx]. The difference in meaning between (4) and (5) lies in the fact that (4) is true only when there is exactly one thing that is ϕ and that thing is not ψ, but (5) is true both in this case and also when nothing is ϕ at all and when more than one thing is ϕ. Neglect of the distinction between (4) and (5) can result in serious confusion of thought; in ordinary speech it is frequently unclear whether someone who denies that the ϕ is ψ is conceding that exactly one thing is ϕ but denying that it is ψ, or denying that exactly one thing is ϕ.

The basic contention of Russell’s theory of descriptions is that a proposition containing a definite description is not to be regarded as an assertion about an object of which that description is a name but rather as an existentially quantified assertion that a certain (rather complex) property has an instance. Formally, this is reflected in the rules for eliminating description operators that were outlined above.