The British in Burma, 1885–1948

The initial impact of colonialism

The chain of events following the Third Anglo-Burmese War dealt a bitter blow to Myanmar. The loss of independence was painful enough; worse still were the British decisions to eliminate the monarchy—in the process sending Thibaw into exile—and to detach the government from religious affairs, thus depriving the sangha (monkhood) of its traditional status and official patronage. Moreover, the British eliminated the office of the patriarch of the Buddhist clergy. The demise of the monarchy and the monkhood, the twin pillars of the society of Myanmar, was perhaps the most devastating aspect of the colonial period.

Many refused to accept the British victory and resorted to guerrilla warfare against the British army of occupation. The guerrillas were led mainly by former officers of the disbanded royal army, former officials (including village leaders), and royal princes, and they considered themselves to be royal soldiers still fighting the Third Anglo-Burmese War. To the British, however, the war had ended legally with the annexation of the kingdom; those opposing them, therefore, were considered rebels and bandits. For the next five years the British military officers acted as both judge and jury in dealing with captured guerrillas. Villagers who aided the rebels also were sternly punished. British troops carried out mass executions and committed other atrocities.

As the guerrillas fought on, the British adopted a “strategic hamlet” plan, whereby villages were burned and families who had supplied villages with their leaders were uprooted from their homes and sent to Lower Burma (which had been under British control since the Second Anglo-Burmese War). Strangers loyal to the colonial government were appointed as leaders for the new villages established by the British. The guerrillas resorted to desperate measures against the new village officials. By 1890, however, with more than 30,000 British and Indian troops engaged in the campaign, the military part of the struggle was over.

The religious dilemma

The colonial period was one of relative civil order, but it also was one of great social disintegration. Chief among the reasons for this was the British-imposed separation of the sangha and the state. The British did not wish to touch the issue of religion—given their experience in India that had led to the Indian Mutiny beginning in 1857—and thus they were unwilling to patronize Burmese Buddhism as the monarchy had done.

Under the monarchy, the monkhood and the state had shared a symbiotic relationship. Royal patronage of Burmese Buddhism had included both financial and moral support, which had extended legitimacy and authority to the religious institution. The king had had the right to appoint the patriarch, who exercised supervision and discipline among the ranks of the clergy. In addition, the king had been given the right to attach two royal officials to the patriarch: a commissioner of ecclesiastical lands and an ecclesiastical censor. The duty of the land commissioner had been to see that ecclesiastical lands were exempted from payment of taxes, at the same time ensuring that false and illegal endowments did not escape taxation. The duty of the censor had been to maintain a register of monks, which had given the king indirect control over the clergy. The power to defrock a wayward monk had rested largely with the patriarch, but the same result could be achieved if the king declared the monk to be impure, which was one of the king’s prerogatives. This arrangement was designed to prevent the abuse of the exemptions granted to the clergy.

The British refusal to heed a plea by the clergy and religious elders to continue the traditional relationship between the monkhood and the state resulted in the decline of the sangha and its ability to instill discipline in the clergy. This in turn lowered the prestige of the clergy and contributed to the rise of secular education and of a new class of teachers, depriving the sangha of one of its primary roles. Added to this, the colonial government of India founded secular schools teaching in both English and Burmese and encouraged foreign Christian missions to found schools by offering them financial assistance. Many mission schools were founded; parents were compelled to send their children to these schools, as there were no realistic alternatives. The teachers were missionaries, and the lessons they gave were marked by repeated criticism of Buddhism and its culture. In the government schools the first teachers, British and Indian, were mere civil servants, unable and unwilling to continue the older traditions.

The colonial economy

Under the monarchy, the economy of Myanmar had been one of redistribution, a concept embedded in local society, religion, and politics. Prices of the most important commodities were set by the state, and in general the mechanism of supply and demand was relatively unimportant. Agrarian self-sufficiency was vital, while trade was only of secondary importance. The British impact on this system proved disastrous, as Burma’s economy became part of the vast export-oriented enterprise of western colonialism. With the British—rather than the people of Burma—as the intended beneficiaries of the new economy, the traditional Burmese economic system collapsed.

The British dream of a golden road to China through Burma could not be realized, but the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created a much higher international demand for Burma’s rice than had previously existed. The Irrawaddy delta was swiftly cleared of its mangrove forests and in a matter of decades became covered with rice fields. The area of productive rice fields in Lower Burma rose from approximately 60,000 acres (24,000 hectares) to nearly 10,000,000 acres (4,000,000 hectares) between the mid-19th century and the outbreak of World War II, while the price of rice increased rapidly and continuously until the Great Depression of the 1930s. This tremendous increase in production created a significant shift in population from the northern heartland to the delta, shifting as well the basis of wealth and power.

In order to prepare the land for cultivation, however, the farmers had to borrow capital from Indian moneylenders from Madras (Chennai) at exorbitant interest rates. The British banks would not grant mortgage loans on rice land, and the British government had no policy for establishing land-mortgage banks or for making agricultural loans. Prevailing prices were high in the international market, but the local price was kept down by a handful of British firms that controlled wholesale trade and by Indian and Chinese merchants who controlled retail trade. With land values and rice prices soaring, the Indian moneylenders foreclosed mortgages at the earliest opportunity, especially when the Great Depression disrupted trade.

The dispossessed farmers could not find employment even on their lost lands because, with their higher standard of living, they could not compete with the thousands of Indian laborers who went to Burma. Burmese villagers, unemployed and lost in a disintegrating society, sometimes took to petty theft and robbery and were soon characterized by the British as lazy and undisciplined. The level of dysfunction in Burmese society was revealed by the dramatic rise in homicides.

Thus, although the Burmese economy and transportation infrastructure developed rapidly from 1890 to 1900, the majority of Burmese people did not benefit from it. A railway had been built through the entire valley of the Irrawaddy, and hundreds of steamboats plied the length of the river, but the railway and the boats belonged to British companies. Roads had been built by the government, but they were meant for the swift transport of troops. A British company worked the ruby mines until they became nearly exhausted. The extraction of petroleum and timber was monopolized by two British firms. The balance of trade was always in favor of Burma, but that meant little to Burmese people or society.

The emergence of nationalism

Those Burmese who attended the new schools established by the colonial government or by missionaries managed to gain admission to the clerical grades of government service, but even in those lower grades they encountered competition from Indians. Because science courses were not available, the professions of engineering and medicine were closed to the Burmese. Those who advanced to the government liberal arts college at Rangoon (Yangon) entered the middle grades of the civil service, while a few went on to London to study law. When these young barristers returned to Burma, they were looked upon by the people as their new leaders. Their sojourn in the liberal atmosphere of London had convinced these new leaders that some measure of political independence could be regained by negotiation.

The new leaders first turned their attention to the national religion, culture, and education. In 1906 they founded the Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA) and through it began establishing a number of schools supported by private donations and government grants-in-aid (the YMBA was not antigovernment). Three years later the British, attempting to pacify the Indian National Congress (a broadly based and increasingly nationalist political party in India), introduced some constitutional reforms in India. Only a few minor changes were made in the Burmese constitution, but these confirmed the young leaders’ faith in British liberalism. In 1920, however, when it was learned that Burma would be excluded from new reforms introduced in India, the barristers led the people in a countrywide protest, which involved a boycott of British goods.

Also in 1920 Rangoon College was raised to the status of a full university by the University Act. However, because the accompanying changes in the school’s administration and curriculum were viewed as elitist and exclusionary of the Burmese population, its students went on strike. Younger schoolchildren followed suit, and the general public and the Buddhist clergy gave full support to the movement. The strikers camped in the courtyards of monasteries, reviving memories of days when education was the concern of the monks. The University Act eventually was amended and the strike settled, but many strikers initially refused to go back to mission and government schools. The YMBA schools, now calling themselves “national” schools, opened their doors to the strikers.

Constitutional reforms were finally granted in 1923, but the delay had split the leaders, some of whom, like the masses, were beginning to doubt whether political freedom could be attained by peaceful protest. At the University of Rangoon itself, students began to resent their British professors. A radical student group began organizing protests, which came to be known as the Thakin movement. The name for this movement was purposely ironic: the Burmese word thakin (“master”) was the term that the Burmese were required to use when addressing the British.

Late in 1930 Burmese peasants, under the leadership of Saya San, rose in rebellion. Armed only with swords and sticks, they resisted British and Indian troops for two years. The young Thakins, though not involved in the rebellion, won the trust of the villagers and emerged as leaders in place of the British-educated Burmese elite. In 1936 university students again went on strike, and two of their leaders, Thakin Nu (later called U Nu) and Aung San, joined the Thakin movement. In 1937 the British government separated Burma from India and granted it its own constitution, independent of that of India; the masses interpreted this as proof that the British planned to exclude Burma from the next phase of Indian reform.

World War II and after

When World War II erupted in Europe in 1939, the Burmese leaders wanted to bargain with the government before giving their support to the British. A warrant was issued for the arrest of Aung San, but he escaped to China, where he attempted to solicit support from radical groups. Assistance came instead from the Japanese government. Aung San returned to Burma in secret, recruited 29 young men, and took them to Japan, where these “Thirty Comrades” (including U Ne Win, who later became head of state) received military training. The Japanese promised independence for Burma; hence, when Japanese troops reached Bangkok (Thailand) in December 1941, Aung San announced the formation of the Burma Independence Army (BIA). The Japanese advanced into Burma and by the end of 1942 had occupied the country. They subsequently disbanded the BIA and formed a smaller Burma Defense Army, with Aung San still as commander. Meanwhile, Thailand was given territory in the Shan states for its support of Japan’s wartime efforts; those lands were returned to Burma in the postwar period, however.

Ba Maw, the first prime minister under the 1937 constitution and later the leader of the opposition, was appointed head of state by the Japanese, with a cabinet including Aung San and Thakin Nu. In 1943, when the tide of battle started to turn against them, the Japanese declared Burma a fully sovereign state. The Burmese government, however, was still a mere facade, with the Japanese army ruling. Meanwhile, Aung San had contacted Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Allied commander in Southeast Asia, as early as October 1943 to offer his cooperation, and in March 1945 Aung San and his army—renamed the Burma National Army (BNA)—joined the British side.

During the war Aung San and the Thakins formed a coalition of political parties called the Anti-Fascist Organization—renamed the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL) after the war—which had wide popular support. After the defeat of the Japanese in Burma in May 1945, the British military administration and members of the prewar government who had returned from exile demanded that Aung San be tried as a traitor. Mountbatten, however, recognized the extent of Aung San’s hold on the BNA and on the general populace, and he hastily sent the more conciliatory Sir Hubert Rance to head the administration. Rance regained for the British the trust of Aung San and the general public. When the war ended, the military administration was withdrawn, and Rance was replaced by the former civilian governor, who formed a cabinet consisting of older and more conservative politicians. The new administration arrested Aung San and charged him with treason. Surprised and angered, the Burmese people prepared for rebellion, but the British government in London wisely reinstated Rance, who had proved himself a sensitive and successful administrator in Burma, as governor.

Rance formed a new cabinet, including Aung San, and discussions for a peaceful transfer of power began. These were concluded in London in January 1947, when the British agreed to Burma’s independence. By June the Burmese had decided to leave the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The communist and conservative wings of the AFPFL were dissatisfied with the agreement. The communists broke away and went underground, and the conservatives went into opposition. In July Aung San and most members of his cabinet were assassinated by gunmen sent by U Saw, a former prime minister and now a conservative. Rance asked Thakin Nu to form a new cabinet. A new constitution was written, and on January 4, 1948, Burma became a sovereign, independent republic.

The unsettled early years, 1948–62

With its economy shattered and its towns and villages destroyed during the war, Burma needed peace. A foreign policy of neutrality was decided upon, but, because of internal strife, no peace resulted. The communists were the first insurgents, followed by some of Aung San’s veterans and then the Karen, the only ethnic minority on the plains. The other minorities—Chin, Kachin, and Shan—who had been ruled separately by the British but who had enthusiastically joined the union, stood firm in support of the government.

At the United Nations, Burma endeavored to show impartiality. It was one of the first countries to recognize Israel, as well as the People’s Republic of China. Meanwhile, a division of Chinese Nationalist troops occupied parts of the Shan Plateau after their defeat by the Chinese communists in 1949. Because of the general support given to Nationalist China (Taiwan) by the United States, Burma stopped accepting U.S. aid and rejected all other foreign aid.

By 1958 Burma was well on the road to internal peace and economic recovery, but the ruling AFPFL had become divided by personal quarrels between U Nu (formerly called Thakin Nu) and his closest associates. Amid rumors of a military takeover, U Nu invited the army chief of staff, Ne Win—who had been a Thakin, one of the Thirty Comrades, and Aung San’s second in command—to assume the premiership. This move sometimes has been called a “constitutional coup.” Ne Win established internal security, stabilized the military situation, and prepared the country for general elections, which took place in February 1960. U Nu was returned to office with an absolute majority.

The socialist state, 1962–88

In March 1962, however, Ne Win led a military coup and arrested U Nu, the chief justice, and several cabinet ministers. He justified his actions as a means of keeping the union from disintegrating. Suspending the 1947 constitution, which had been in effect since independence, he ruled the country with a Revolutionary Council consisting of senior military officers. Ne Win’s stated purpose was to make Burma a truly socialist state. A military-controlled one-party (Burma Socialist Programme Party [BSPP]) system was established. In April 1972 Ne Win and other members of the Revolutionary Council retired from the army, but they retained their positions of power in the BSPP.

Land had been nationalized under U Nu’s administration, and much of the country’s commerce and industry was nationalized under Ne Win. Ultimately, Ne Win implemented a type of command economy—a system whereby the means of production are publicly owned and economic activity is controlled by the government—that was in some ways reminiscent of the redistributive economy of the monarchy. These measures did not improve the economy, however, particularly as investment in agriculture generally was sacrificed in favor of industrial growth, and as the military replaced civilians in key administrative positions.

Ne Win had promised a new constitution, and in September 1971 representatives of the party’s central committee, of the country’s various ethnic groups, and of other interest groups were appointed to draft a document. A referendum to ratify the new constitution was held in December 1973, with more than 90 percent of eligible voters signifying approval, and the constitution was promulgated in January 1974. Elections to the People’s Assembly (Pyithu Hluttaw)—the supreme legislative, executive, and judicial authority—and to local People’s Councils were held early in 1974; the new government took office in March with Ne Win as president.

After the establishment of the new political organization, Burma’s economy grew steadily at a moderate pace. A notable policy change was a partial relaxation of the ban on foreign financial aid, and considerable funding was received from the Asian Development Bank and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (part of the World Bank), as well as from Japan. By the early 1980s, however, growth increasingly was being hindered by mounting trade deficits caused largely by falling commodity export prices, the increasing costs of imports, and rising external debt payments. A series of economic reforms proposed in 1987–88 were intended to reverse the socialist policies enacted in the early 1960s. Chief among these were the active encouragement of foreign investment and a considerable liberalization of foreign trade.

Communist and ethnic insurgencies had expanded in the eastern and northern parts of the country throughout the BSPP period. In May 1980 Ne Win offered full amnesty to all political insurgents inside or outside Burma who reported to authorities within a 90-day period. Most notable among those accepting was U Nu, who, after having gone into exile in India in 1969, returned to enter a Buddhist monastery. Most insurgents, however, chose to continue opposing the government, and repeated attempts by government troops to suppress them met with only limited success. After four decades, insurgency had become a way of life.

Myanmar since 1988

Ne Win retired as president and chairman of the Council of State in November 1981 but remained in power until July 1988, when he resigned as chairman of the BSPP amid violent protests. Student and worker unrest had erupted periodically throughout the 1980s, but the intensity of the protests in the summer of 1988 made it seem as if the country were on the verge of revolution. On September 18 the armed forces, led by Gen. Saw Maung, seized control of the government. The military moved to suppress the demonstrations, and thousands of unarmed protesters were killed. Martial law was imposed over most of the country, and constitutional government was replaced by a new military body called the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). Saw Maung became chairman of the SLORC as well as prime minister.

The SLORC changed the name of the country to Myanmar, implemented the economic reforms drafted by the previous government, and called for election of a new legislature and revision of the 1974 constitution. In May 1990 Myanmar held its first multiparty elections in 30 years. Of the dozens of parties that participated, the two most important were the government’s National Unity Party (NUP), successor to the BSPP, and an opposition coalition called the National League for Democracy (NLD). The result was a landslide victory for the opposition NLD, which won some four-fifths of the seats.

The SLORC, however, would not permit the legislature—which it now declared to be a constituent assembly tasked with drafting a new constitution—to convene. Moreover, the military regime did not release the NLD’s leaders, Tin U, a former general and colleague of Ne Win, and Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of the nationalist leader Aung San, both of whom had been under house arrest since July 1989; another leader, Sein Win, remained in exile in the West. International condemnation of the military regime was strong and widespread, both for its bloody repression of the demonstrations in 1988 and for its actions in connection with the 1990 elections. Worldwide attention continued to be focused on Myanmar after Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. (She remained under house arrest until 1995 and thereafter was detained periodically.) In April 1992 Saw Maung was reported to be in poor health and was replaced as chairman of the SLORC and as prime minister by Gen. Than Shwe.

Throughout the 1990s, the military solidified its political and economic hold of the country. In 1993 the SLORC appointed a new National Convention to formulate a constitution that would give the military control of the reorganized state, but by 1996 the convention had failed to complete its task. It did not convene again until 2004 and then met intermittently for nearly four more years before producing a draft constitution. Also in 1993 the military government sought to ensure its continued support by forming a new social organization, the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA), the aims of which paralleled those of the SLORC. By the early 21st century, more than one-fifth of the country’s population belonged to the organization. To guarantee its control of the economy in the event that it relinquished titular power, the military also formed two conglomerates, comprising various domestic businesses and joint ventures with foreign firms. The military itself more than doubled in troop strength between 1988 and 2000; moreover, the SLORC initiated a variety of cease-fires with most ethnic insurgent groups, thus giving the government greater control over peripheral areas while increasing border trade. In 1997 the military revamped the organizational structure of its ruling body and changed its name from the SLORC to the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).

The political stalemate carried over into the 21st century, with the SPDC continuing to harass the NLD and the military maintaining stringent control. Calling on the SPDC to honor the results of the 1990 elections, the United States invoked economic sanctions against Myanmar in 1997 and restricted contact between the two countries. The European Union (EU) subsequently restricted trade and interaction with the SPDC, and the United Nations continued to condemn human rights violations and forced-labor practices in Myanmar. Late in 2000 the SPDC initiated secret talks with Aung San Suu Kyi (during another period of house arrest), and in 2001 it released approximately 200 political prisoners, evidently as a result of its negotiations with her. The potential for further democratic advancement emerged when Gen. Khin Nyunt was named prime minister in 2003. He promised to usher the country toward a new constitution and free elections, but his rule was cut short by allegations of corruption. In late 2004 he too was placed under house arrest and was replaced by Gen. Soe Win.

After decades of self-imposed isolation and international neglect, Myanmar nevertheless assumed greater strategic and economic importance in the Asian region in the years leading up to the 21st century. The migration of more than one million Chinese into Myanmar, massive Chinese support for the SLORC (and, later, the SPDC) in the form of military equipment and assistance in infrastructure development, and the ability of the Chinese to open trade through Myanmar to the Bay of Bengal concerned the Indian government. In an effort to lessen Chinese influence, India shifted its policy from opposing the SLORC to supporting it. In 1997 Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a group that tacitly sought to strengthen economic and political conditions within Myanmar and also to curb Chinese influence.

Despite its increased global interaction since 2000, Myanmar remained hampered by international sanctions—including intensified U.S. and EU sanctions in 2003 after the SPDC again detained Aung San Suu Kyi. It was clear that Myanmar’s prospects for further economic growth and acceptance by the international community were contingent on democratic progress and an improved human rights record. When in September 2007 the monastic community staged a large-scale demonstration calling for democratic reforms, the harsh response from the military drew widespread international criticism.

In the wake of this unrest, the National Convention finally approved a draft of a new constitution in early 2008 that was to be put to a public referendum in May. However, the referendum process was disrupted by natural disaster. On May 3–4 a powerful cyclone (Nargis) struck the Irrawaddy delta region of south-central Myanmar, obliterating villages and killing some 138,000 people (the total including tens of thousands listed as missing and presumed dead). The government’s failure to provide relief quickly at the outset of the disaster and its unwillingness to accept foreign aid or to grant entrance to foreign relief workers further increased the death toll caused by disease and elicited harsh criticism from the international community.

The new constitution was ratified in late May 2008, although outside observers were highly skeptical of the referendum process itself (particularly the reported results from regions devastated by the cyclone). The document was to take effect after the election of a new bicameral legislature, named the Assembly of the Union, which eventually was scheduled for November 2010. Provisions in the constitution ensured that the military would have a leading role in future governments in Myanmar, notably that one-fourth of the members of each legislative chamber would be appointed by the military leadership.

In preparation for the parliamentary elections, a series of election reform laws were enacted in March 2010. One of them officially annulled the results of the 1990 election, while two others stipulated that persons married to foreign nationals or convicted of crimes were barred from participating in the election. The effect of these latter two laws was to disqualify Aung San Suu Kyi, who was married to a British citizen and in 2009 had been convicted of violating the terms of her house arrest (an uninvited intruder had entered her compound in Yangon) and sentenced to an additional 18 months of house arrest. In addition, political parties were required to reregister or they would be disbanded. Since this would obligate the NLD to accept the annulment of the 1990 election as well as to expel Aung San Suu Kyi and other party leaders from its ranks, the party chose not to register and thus was forced to dissolve in May.

Some three dozen parties did register for the elections, including the USDA—which renamed itself the Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP)—and one created by a faction of former NLD members. In addition, several high-ranking generals in the government resigned their military commissions to run as civilian candidates in the NUP. The elections were for both the national legislature and local assemblies, and the USDP and NUP, the two government parties, fielded at least one candidate between them (and typically one each) for every race. The much smaller opposition parties were able to put forward only a fraction of the number of candidates, meaning that in most races the government nominees ran unopposed. The result of the polling, held in early November, was an expected overwhelming victory for USDP and NUP candidates. However, many opposition parties claimed voter fraud by the government. In addition, with the notable exception of China, most international observers, including the United Nations, considered the election unfair and merely a means by which the ruling junta sought to legitimize its power. Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest six days after the election and continued her opposition to military rule.

A brief transition period ensued in early 2011. The new legislature convened on January 31, at which time the 2008 constitution nominally went into effect. On February 4 Thein Sein, a former general who served as prime minister since 2007, was elected president of Myanmar by members of the legislature. Than Shwe dissolved the SPDC (thus formally relinquishing his control of the state and government) on March 30, and Thein Sein assumed constitutional executive authority in the country. Than Shwe subsequently also stepped down from his military posts, but it was unclear if he continued to wield some degree of behind-the-scenes power in the government.

Thein Sein’s new civilian government embarked on implementing a broad agenda of political and social reforms during the remainder of 2011. These included relaxing press restrictions, releasing thousands of political prisoners in a general amnesty, enacting laws allowing for peaceful demonstrations and for the formation of unions, and signing a cease-fire accord with Shan insurgents (a similar accord was reached with Karen rebels in January 2012). Most notably, government-imposed restrictions on Aung San Suu Kyi were further relaxed during the year, including her ability to meet freely with associates and to travel around the country. In December the NLD was allowed to register as an official party and field candidates for parliamentary by-elections held on April 1, 2012. Aung San Suu Kyi vied for and won the open seat in her home constituency in Yangon. In all, NLD candidates won 43 of the 45 seats that were up for election.

Accompanying the domestic political and social changes in Myanmar were greater efforts to end the years of international isolation. Several high-level foreign officials visited the country in 2011—including U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who met with both Aung San Suu Kyi and Thein Sein. Following the April 2012 elections, the United States and European Union announced plans to begin lifting some of the economic sanctions and other restrictions that had been in place since the early 1990s, and in November U.S. Pres. Barack Obama made a brief visit to Yangon. In addition, in early 2012 the kyat (Myanmar’s currency) was allowed to float in value on world markets as one of the initial steps toward economic reform. That action was part of the government’s efforts since 2011 to increase and diversify foreign investment in the country and to attract greater numbers of foreign tourists. The strategy seemed to work, as the country experienced several years of solid economic growth.

Parliamentary elections were held in early November 2015 and proved to be the country’s first to be freely contested. Reports indicated that, generally, the polling was conducted fairly, and, after several days of ballot counting, it was clear that the NLD had won a considerable majority of the seats in both legislative chambers. The NLD was thus poised to form a new government in early 2016, although the military leaders were to retain control over such areas as the army and the police force. In addition, Aung San Suu Kyi would not be permitted to become president, because of the constitutional provision that bans candidates who have (or had) spouses or children who are foreign nationals. Because of that stipulation, the NLD presented Aung San Suu Kyi’s close friend, Htin Kyaw, as the party’s candidate. Members of the legislature met on March 15, 2016, to vote on the country’s new president. Htin Kyaw was elected. He was inaugurated on March 30, 2016. Aung San Suu Kyi emerged with multiple posts in the government before paring her appointments to that of foreign minister, minister in the president’s office, and a newly established and powerful state counselor post. The last position had been created by the NLD-dominated legislature and signed into law by Htin Kyaw within a week of his inauguration; the creation of the position was denounced by the military members of the legislature, who labeled it unconstitutional.

In her new position of power, Aung San Suu Kyi’s primary focus was on bringing to an end the various insurgencies that were being waged across the country by some 20 different ethnic armed organizations. Building on the progress that the previous administration had reached with some of the groups that had signed a nationwide cease-fire in October 2015, the 21st Century Panglong peace conference opened in August 2016 and was followed with regular meetings thereafter. Economic reforms started by the previous government continued to be pursued, albeit initially at a slower pace, as the new administration was more focused on quelling the insurgencies than on reforming the economy, and businesses were hesitant to act until there was more certainty regarding the shape and direction of the new administration’s economic policies.

One of the highest-profile challenges faced by the new administration was a resurgence in 2016 and again in 2017 of the periodic violence against the Muslim population of Rakhine state, who were known as the Rohingya, at the hands of Myanmar’s military and police. The actions by security forces—initially in response to some attacks on them by Rohingya militants—led to brutal crackdowns on the civilian Rohingya population. There were allegations that widespread human rights violations were being committed by Myanmar’s security forces against the Rohingya, including rape, beatings, and killings. In early 2018 it was estimated that more than 800,000 Rohingya had fled the country since the first crackdown had begun in 2016. The actions of the security forces drew international condemnation, and the government’s weak response to the crisis garnered significant amounts of criticism from the international community for falling far short of what was needed. Particularly harsh criticism was leveled specifically at Aung San Suu Kyi, whose long history as a human rights and pro-democracy activist was in sharp contrast to her tepid response to the plight of the Rohingya people as well as her failure to denounce the military, with whom she precariously shared power and whom she later defended in 2019 when the country was brought before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for allegedly having committed acts that constituted genocide against the Rohingya. At an ICJ hearing in December 2019, she testified in defense of Myanmar’s actions and said that if any war crimes had been committed by members of the military, they would be prosecuted in Myanmar’s military justice system.

Meanwhile, on March 21, 2018, Htin Kyaw abruptly resigned as president. Myint Swe, a former general who was the senior of the country’s two vice presidents, served as acting president until the Assembly of the Union (the two legislative houses) could vote on Htin Kyaw’s successor. On March 23 Win Myint of the NLD was elected to one of the two vice president posts by the lower house. Both houses then elected him as president on March 28, and he was sworn in on March 30, 2018. Like Htin Kyaw, Win Myint was also a close ally of Aung San Suu Kyi, and the balance of power between the presidency and her state counselor position was not expected to change.

The NLD introduced constitutional amendments in March 2020 with the goal of democratic reforms to the military-backed 2008 constitution. These included some that would gradually reduce the minimum number of legislative seats reserved for the military over a 15-year period, as well as decreasing the military’s broad emergency powers. But, since the 2008 constitution provided the military with at least 25 percent of legislative seats, ensuring that they could block any legislation unfavorable to the military’s interests, the amendments were not passed.

The country’s next parliamentary election was held on November 8, 2020. Polls were not held in some sections of the country, however, with the election commission citing the insecurity from ongoing unrest between the military and armed ethnic groups as the reason. This affected less than 10 percent of the total electorate, but it was primarily ethnic minority voters who were disenfranchised. The NLD won a clear majority of seats in both legislative chambers, gaining more seats than it had won in 2015, while the military-aligned USDP saw its number of seats decrease. The USDP and the military rejected the results, alleging that the election had been tainted by fraud and irregularities, and called for the polls to be rerun. The electoral commission rejected these claims, saying that there was no evidence of fraud or irregularities widespread enough to have affected the outcome of the election; the commission’s stance was supported by the observations of international and domestic election monitors. The military also asked the government to delay the opening of parliament, scheduled for early February, but the government rejected the request.

On February 1, 2021—the day that parliament was scheduled to meet for the first time since the election—the military seized power in a coup d’etat. Pres. Win Myint, Aung San Suu Kyi, and other NLD members were detained and Vice Pres. Myint Swe became acting president. He immediately invoked articles 417 and 418 of the constitution, declaring a one-year state of emergency and handing control of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government to the commander in chief of the armed forces, Senior Gen. Min Aung Hlaing. Senior General Min claimed that the military takeover was necessary because of what they still maintained were unresolved electoral irregularities and because the request to postpone the opening of parliament had not been heeded. He promised to hold new elections at the end of the state of emergency and to hand power over to the winner. The next day the State Administrative Council was formed, with Senior General Min as chairman, to handle government function during the state of emergency. The coup was widely condemned on the international stage, and there was opposition to the military coup within Myanmar as citizens held large protests and engaged in acts of civil disobedience.

Since the 2021 military coup, Myanmar has been engulfed in a deepening civil conflict. This escalation has been marked by the emergence of People’s Defense Forces (PDFs), grassroots armed groups formed by civilians and defectors from the military who oppose the oppressive actions of the military junta and Senior General Min. These PDFs have begun to collaborate with Myanmar’s long established ethnic armed organizations (EAOs), which collectively number about 20 major groups. This amalgamation of pro-democracy and ethnic resistance efforts has further complicated the conflict dynamics, blurring the lines between pro-democracy movements and ethnic struggles for autonomy.

In response to the military coup, a parallel civilian government, the National Unity Government (NUG), was formed by deposed lawmakers and representatives from various ethnic groups and opposition factions. While the NUG claims legitimate governance and seeks international support, it relies heavily on the military power of the EAOs and PDFs to maintain pressure on the military regime. The conflict intensified in late 2023 with the launch of Operation 1027 by the Three Brotherhood Alliance, consisting of the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA), the Ta’ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), and the Arakan Army (AA). This operation led to strategic defeats and territorial losses for the Myanmar national army, particularly in northern Shan and Rakhine states.

A significant development occurred in April 2024 when the Karen National Union (KNU) seized control of Myawaddy, a town on the Myanmar-Thailand border and a major point of trade with Thailand. The victory not only showcased the KNU’s military capability but also highlighted the weakening control of the military junta over Myanmar. The capture of Myawaddy garnered significant coverage in Western media because of its implications for regional stability and international trade. This event prompted Thailand’s foreign minister to visit the border and the Thai military to tighten security in the area. As of late April, resistance groups controlled nearly half of Myanmar’s territory, prompting increasing international attention and speculation on the potential collapse of the junta.