- Key People:
- Henri Bergson
- Alfred Adler
Although Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, wrote in German, he used the German word Instinkt infrequently. He instead relied upon the term Trieb. While Instinkt generally refers to an automatic, unlearned, stereotyped response to a specific stimulus and hence is close to the English reflex, Trieb connotes urge, impulse, impetus, and desire—what in motivational psychology is called drive. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this is the oldest description recorded for instinct, making it cognate with instigate.
Freud, early in his studies, took the biological view that there are two basic instinctive forces governing life: self-preservation and reproduction. This view is derived from German poet Friedrich von Schiller’s expression that “hunger and love are what moves the world,” a concept that prevailed in Freud’s Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). However, in 1915 Freud published a paper titled “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes,” which ultimately served as an account of how his ideas changed as psychoanalytic theory evolved. When he abandoned his attempt to explain mental life in physiological terms (The Origins of Psychoanalysis, 1954), the biological duo of drives gave way to a system in which self-preservation instinct virtually disappeared and sexual appetite dominated. Libido was supposed to consist of a kind of motivational energy internally generated with a certain strength or impetus, having the aim of achieving sexual gratification through interaction with some external object. To explain this, Freud drew on hydraulic and electrical physical analogies, as indicated in his “The Neuro-Psychosis of Defence” (1894):
“in mental functions something is to be distinguished—a quota of affect or a sum of excitation—which possesses all the characteristics of a quantity (though we have no means of measuring it) which is capable of increase, diminution, displacement and discharge, and which is spread over the memory-traces of ideas somewhat as an electric charge is spread over the surface of a body. This hypothesis…can be applied in the same sense as physicists apply the hypothesis of a flow of electric fluid.
The libido exerts its pressure from birth, its expression taking various forms, hence manifesting “polymorphous perversity,” as the child negotiates the passage from infancy to puberty. As a consequence, Freud recognized a number of “sexual component instincts,” which included masochism, sadism, voyeurism, and narcissism. The theory incorporating the concept of libido underwent continual revision until it reached its final form in 1923 with the publication of The Ego and the Id.
Prior to Freud’s final refinements to his concept of libido, he had developed an ancillary theory, in which aggression was admitted as a force of more or less equal standing with sexual motivation. In place of sovereign sexual libido, he was led to postulate two opposing instincts: Eros, the life instinct, and Thanatos, the death instinct (a desire to return to an inorganic state). Because Eros opposes the taking of one’s own life, which Thanatos would urge, the destructive energy of the death instinct is turned outward and expressed as aggression toward others—hence the record of carnage, cruelty, and persecution that is the burden of human history.
What consistency there is to Freud’s varying views of instinct lies in their all taking a primarily motivational form. Yet even in this there is a deep division that defies coherence. Freud vacillated between two contrasting ways of explaining behaviour: in terms of causes and in terms of intentions. At times he appealed to force and mechanism to account for compulsions, aberrations, and neurotic symptoms; at other times he called on the agency of the ego, which could devise strategies, exercise reason, and pursue purposes. In part because Freud’s ideas about instinct were varied and contained internal contradictions, later versions of psychoanalysis, such as those of German psychoanalyst Karen Horney and of British object-relations theorists, have tended to de-emphasize the role of biologically driven instinct in psychodynamics.
McDougall and behaviourism
In the early 20th century British-born American psychologist William McDougall popularized a theory of instinct based on the idea that behaviour has inherent purpose, in the sense that it is aimed at the attainment of a goal. This purposiveness was the expression of a subjectively experienced urge that stemmed from an emotional source present at birth and hence constituted an instinct. Thus, each qualitatively distinct emotional state supported a separate instinct, such as hunger, thirst, fear, aggressiveness, sexual desire, parental affection, and so on. With the publication of McDougall’s book An Introduction to Social Psychology (1908), his purposive psychology caught on to such an extent that explanation in terms of instinct became a fashion in the social sciences, including economics (as evidenced by American economist Thorstein Veblen’s The Instinct of Workmanship and the State of the Industrial Arts, 1914). However, emotions proved to be more shifting sand than bedrock for the foundation of instinct. There were no sharp criteria for distinguishing the emotions. As a result, different people produced different lists, between which there appeared to be no objective means to reach agreement. American psychologist William James had already made the point with regard to the taxonomy of the emotions that “its subdivisions are to a great extent either fictitious or unimportant….Its pretences to accuracy are a sham.”
Added to this issue over emotional boundaries was opposition from behaviourists who objected to the inclusion of the notion of subjective purposiveness in a science that was trying to be objective and to the assumption of its innate basis. In 1919 there emerged an anti-instinct revolt, which opened with the publication of the paper “Are There Any Instincts?” by American psychologist Knight Dunlap. Dunlap’s answer to the question proposed by his paper was negative. In it he attacked McDougall for appealing to subjective purposiveness, which was beyond the reach of observation and hence scientific validation. Other behaviourist critics brought negative evidence to bear on claims of innateness, in line with their assumption that all behaviour, apart from the simplest reflexes, is moulded by experience. By and large the friends of instinct were outdone in debate with the behaviourists, who insisted on the priority of hard facts and experiments over what they regarded as vague conjecture. However, as McDougall’s influence waned during the 1930s, a new champion for the cause of instinct—what came to be known as classical ethology—emerged in continental Europe.
Ethology and instinct
Lorenz: genetically determined behaviour
Ethology, the biological study of behaviour, rose to prominence in Europe in the late 1930s under the leadership of Austrian zoologist Konrad Lorenz and Dutch zoologist Nikolaas Tinbergen. In 1950 Lorenz stated that ethology owed its start to the discovery of a “distinct and particulate physiological process…a certain type of innate, genetically determined behaviour patterns.” He variously referred to this type of behaviour as “instinctive activity” (Instinkthandlung), “endogenous movements,” and “fixed action patterns” but maintained that it and it alone possessed all the attributes of instinct. Thus, it was supposed to be (1) stereotyped, (2) possessed by all members of at least one sex of a species, (3) innate in the sense of being genetically inherited, (4) innate in the sense of being unlearned, (5) internally patterned and controlled (once set in motion, it runs its course without further involvement of any peripheral stimulation), and (6) triggered by a specific external stimulus (“sign stimulus” or “releaser”)—this stimulus, and hence the performance of the action pattern, being the goal and terminus of variable sequences of “appetitive behaviour.” In one description, Lorenz even included the idea that an animal experiences a craving for the opportunity to perform the behaviour.
To account for the timing and duration of instinctive acts, Lorenz postulated the continuous internal generation of “action-specific energy.” This energy was expended in performance of the act and accumulated between performances, when, after reaching a certain threshold level, it drives the relevant appetitive behaviour. This motivational model recalls the analogies of Freud, but it bore little comparison to what was known of how nervous systems work, and thus it drew criticism from physiologists. Even Lorenz’s ethological colleagues had problems with it. For example, Tinbergen rejected the idea that there is a distinct kind of energy for each fixed action pattern; he sought a more integrated conception of the control of behaviour.
Tinbergen: hierarchy of motivation
In The Study of Instinct, (1951) Nikolaas Tinbergen envisaged a hierarchically organized mechanism incorporating successive patterns of appetitive behaviour that end in the performance of a fixed action pattern. “Motivational impulses” that fed into the system from a central nervous source were channeled into one or another of several outlets at each level of the hierarchy, depending upon the external stimuli encountered. The stimuli determined the course of the appetitive sequence, and this sequence progressed from general behaviour to specific behaviour, culminating in the terminal act, which was supposed to “use up” the remaining motivational impulses. Hence, the fixed action pattern was described as a “consummatory act,” conflating the senses of consummate and consume. Tinbergen envisaged such a mechanism for each of the major functional categories of behaviour: foraging, reproduction, antipredator behaviour, and so on. The example that Tinbergen worked out in greatest detail is the reproductive instinct of the fish known as the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). The reproductive instinct of this fish comprises (for the male) territorial fighting, nest building, mating behaviour, and care of offspring at the first level of the hierarchy. Each of these behaviours is made up of several alternatives constituting the next level. For example, territorial fighting consists of threat display, chasing, biting, and other aggressive actions. In order for a territory-holding fish to express its reproductive instinct in fighting, it must be confronted with trespass by a rival male. The behaviours that the territory-holding fish pursues depend upon whether the rival advances, retreats, threatens, or fights back.
While the description of behaviour as a nested hierarchy of functional categories has observational backing, Tinbergen’s motivational account of it was subject to many of the same objections leveled at Lorenz’s energy model. Tinbergen’s motivational impulses could accumulate, become dammed up, overflow, and be expended in the performance of end acts. While some of this description might apply to hormonal function, none of it applies to neural transmission—unquestionably the main means of behavioral control. Behavioral observation also posed problems. For example, many supposedly instinctive action sequences turned out to be terminated by the situation, whether it was finding a hiding place, sitting on eggs, or adjusting body temperature, rather than by the expenditure of energy in the performance of a stereotyped fixed action pattern.
In the late 1950s many ethologists insisted that the instinct concept be described in empirical terms. One result of this tough-minded approach was a loss of confidence in the adequacy of drive theories of the kinds proposed by Lorenz and Tinbergen to provide accurate accounts of behavioral control. Demands for overt quantitative indices of a drive state produced several alternative means of measurement; however, as in the behaviouristic context referred to above, these often failed to coincide with one another, implying that there must be more than a single unitary force at work. In the 1960s British zoologist Robert Hinde drew on many examples to support the view that the causal basis of behaviour is dispersed among numerous variables affecting sensory, central, and motor pathways. Since then motivational models in ethology have moved away from conceptions of energy generation and toward other ways of thinking. One idea introduced at this time was decision theory, according to which an animal selects among alternative courses of action in accordance with assessments of present and past costs and benefits in a given situation.
Instinct as innateness
Whether instinct is construed as an urge or drive or as a way of behaving, genetic inheritance is usually either explicitly asserted or implicitly assumed. Indeed, there are contexts in which a claim of genetic a priori (being independent of experience) is virtually the sole point of appeal to instinct.
Language serves as a useful example. In the 1950s American linguist Noam Chomsky forcefully argued that, although children pick up the language and dialect they hear spoken around them, they must do so on the basis of prior grammatical knowledge, constituting a “language acquisition device” that they are presumably born with. This, according to Chomsky, is implied by the existence of universal constraints on syntactic structure, in which “the poverty of the stimulus” acts as a means of accounting for the spectacular blossoming of vocabulary and syntactic command around age 2 and for the restriction of language acquisition to a “sensitive period” ending before age 10. Belief in a preformed grammatical device, for which heard speech provides input for the generation of linguistic competence and performance, has spread among linguists. For example, Canadian American psychologist Steven Pinker, in his The Language Instinct (1994), gave the theory an evolutionary interpretation.
However, the language instinct theory remains controversial. Among those who oppose the theory are researchers who used computer modeling to determine whether a “neural” network could simulate the course of language development of a human child. They claimed that all the features that the language instinct was invoked to explain can arise in a “neural network” in the absence of any predesigned structure of rules or grammar. The constraints on syntax and timing are emergent from self-organization within the network as it progressively adjusts connection strengths with repeated passage from input to output with reentrant feedback. However, the computer studies leave the issues of linguistic development unsettled. Thus, language instinct, similar to all other forms of instinct, can be described variously as encompassing genetically inherited, unlearned, reflexlike properties, driven from within, or as involving notions of impulsion, knowledge, and understanding.
Pinker’s book on the language instinct and his later book, How the Mind Works (1997), belong to a field known as evolutionary psychology. This is a movement that views the human mind as designed by natural selection. As a result, it opposes the standard social science model, according to which the mind is a general-purpose cognitive device shaped virtually in its entirety by cultural influence. In contrast, evolutionary psychology argues that the mind consists of a number of functionally specialized modules. This organization acknowledges the existence of selection pressures that acted on human Paleolithic ancestors living in small hunter-gatherer societies. Although the term instinct is lightly used in the writings of evolutionary psychologists, it is pervasively implicit in the sense of inborn propensity or innate structure.
Because evolutionary psychology can be viewed as genetic reductionism that ignores the intricacies of individual development, it is vulnerable to the kinds of criticism that comparable nativist views such as that of Lorenz have been subject to in the past. There is plenty of evidence that genes can influence behaviour. However, the question of how they do so is at issue. In the past this question either was not addressed or was assumed to involve specification of developmental outcome without any contribution from interaction with contextual factors, such as might result from experience. However, this assumption fails to acknowledge the complexity of the developmental process. At all levels—from the gene in its matrix of microcellular structure to the grown organism in its physical and social environments—interaction is the rule, which can be revealed only by developmental study. Evidence of genetic basis, which has been furnished by selective breeding and by functional correlation implying natural selection, is silent about how a behavioral trait is realized in individual ontogeny (the development of an organism from conception to adulthood).