- Also called:
- public international law or law of nations
- Related Topics:
- conflict of laws
- force majeure
- space law
- asylum
- terra nullius
Although states are not the only entities with international legal standing and are not the exclusive international actors, they are the primary subjects of international law and possess the greatest range of rights and obligations. Unlike states, which possess rights and obligations automatically, international organizations, individuals, and others derive their rights and duties in international law directly from particular instruments. Individuals may, for example, assert their rights under international law under the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, both of which entered into force in 1976.
Statehood
Creation of states
The process of creating new states is a mixture of fact and law, involving the establishment of particular factual conditions and compliance with relevant rules. The accepted criteria of statehood were laid down in the Montevideo Convention (1933), which provided that a state must possess a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to conduct international relations.
The need for a permanent population and a defined territory is clear, though boundary disputes—e.g., those concerning Albania after World War I and Israel in 1948—do not preclude statehood. The international community (including the UN) has recognized some states while they were embroiled in a civil war (e.g., the Congo in 1960 and Angola in 1975), thus eroding the effective-government criterion. Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were also recognized as new states by much of the international community in 1992, though at the time neither was able to exercise any effective control over significant parts of its territory. Although independence is required, it need not be more than formal constitutional independence.
States may become extinct through merger (North and South Yemen in 1990), absorption (the accession of the Länder [states] of the German Democratic Republic into the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990), dissolution and reestablishment as new and separate states (the creation of separate Czech and Slovak republics from Czechoslovakia in 1993), limited dismemberment with a territorially smaller state continuing the identity of the larger state coupled with the emergence of new states from part of the territory of the latter (the Soviet Union in 1991), or, historically, annexation (Nazi Germany’s Anschluss of Austria in 1938).
Recognition
Recognition is a process whereby certain facts are accepted and endowed with a certain legal status, such as statehood, sovereignty over newly acquired territory, or the international effects of the grant of nationality. The process of recognizing as a state a new entity that conforms with the criteria of statehood is a political one, each country deciding for itself whether to extend such acknowledgment. Normal sovereign and diplomatic immunities are generally extended only after a state’s executive authority has formally recognized another state (see diplomatic immunity). International recognition is important evidence that the factual criteria of statehood actually have been fulfilled. A large number of recognitions may buttress a claim to statehood even in circumstances where the conditions for statehood have been fulfilled imperfectly (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992). According to the “declaratory” theory of recognition, which is supported by international practice, the act of recognition signifies no more than the acceptance of an already-existing factual situation—i.e., conformity with the criteria of statehood. The “constitutive” theory, in contrast, contends that the act of recognition itself actually creates the state.
Before granting recognition, states may require the fulfillment of additional conditions. The European Community (ultimately succeeded by the EU), for example, issued declarations in 1991 on the new states that were then forming in eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia that required, inter alia, respect for minority rights, the inviolability of frontiers, and commitments to disarmament and nuclear nonproliferation. The timing of any recognition is crucial—particularly when a new state has been formed partly from an existing one. Premature recognition in a case of secession can amount to intervention in a state’s internal affairs, a violation of one of the fundamental principles of international law. Recognition of governments is distinguished from the recognition of a state. The contemporary trend is in fact no longer to recognize governments formally but to focus instead upon the continuation (or discontinuation) of diplomatic relations. By this change, states seek to avoid the political difficulties involved in deciding whether or not to “recognize” new regimes taking power by nonconstitutional means.
Although states are not obliged to recognize new claimants to statehood, circumstances sometimes arise that make it a positive duty not to recognize a state. During the 1930s, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Stimson propounded the doctrine of the nonrecognition of situations created as a result of aggression, an approach that has been reinforced since the end of World War II. In the 1960s, the UN Security Council “called upon” all states not to recognize the Rhodesian white-minority regime’s declaration of independence and imposed economic sanctions. Similar international action was taken in the 1970s and ’80s in response to South Africa’s creation of Bantustans, or homelands, which were territories that the white-minority government designated as “independent states” as part of its policy of apartheid. The Security Council also pronounced the purported independence of Turkish-occupied northern Cyprus as “legally invalid” (1983) and declared “null and void” Iraq’s annexation of Kuwait (1990). The UN also has declared that Israel’s purported annexation of the Golan Heights (conquered from Syria in 1967) is invalid and has ruled similarly with regard to Israel’s extension of its jurisdiction to formerly Jordanian-controlled East Jerusalem.