Research and debate

Juvenile offenders have been a special focus of research in the field of criminology. Most early studies compared juveniles who were processed by juvenile courts with the general population or to groups of nondelinquents. Such cases were considered to be biased, however, usually because they were based on nonscientific samples of youths who committed (or did not commit) delinquent offenses. Research that utilized interview and questionnaire responses gathered from representative samples of youths had become the dominant method for studying juvenile delinquency by the 1970s. Such research generally confirms higher rates of delinquency among the following groups: (1) boys rather than girls, especially for the most serious offenses, (2) minority youths for major property and violent offenses, (3) youths with delinquent peers, (4) youths who have dropped out of school or who have difficulties in school, (5) youths whose parents neither communicate with them nor monitor their activities, (6) youths who do not accord moral authority to the law and its representatives, (7) youths who exhibit little empathy or concern for the effects of their actions on others, (8) youths whose parents have committed offenses or have exhibited violence in relationships within the family, and (9) youths who come from neighbourhoods with high crime rates and who have few positive forces in their lives—that is, youths with little social capital. Although there is some evidence that variations in physiological and hormonal characteristics may affect delinquency, they appear to do so through their effects on learning and social relationships.

The information garnered through such research influenced the design of several programs aimed at preventing or reducing delinquency. Correctional programs that strove to change offenders through group processes recognized the role of peer groups in promoting—and preventing—delinquent behaviour (see group therapy). Such programs included those aimed at parents (including constructive techniques for monitoring and responding to misbehaviour), those intended to increase a commitment to one’s school, those aimed at restorative justice and encouraging empathy through restitution, and neighbourhood surveillance projects such as Neighborhood Watch, recreational activities for juveniles and adults, and local problem solving.

Systems of juvenile justice are frequent subjects of criticism, not least because they are expected to accomplish a number of varying, and sometimes incongruent, goals, such as deterring delinquency, incapacitating serious offenders, establishing appropriate retribution, and rehabilitating and protecting youth. Some conservative critics have challenged the use of probation in dealing with juvenile offenders and have called for the abolition of juvenile courts on the grounds that they are not sufficiently punitive. Liberals, meanwhile, have criticized juvenile courts for often ignoring rights of due process. A commonly proposed alternative would reinstate a single justice system with special considerations in sentencing based on age—a policy that would require extending to juveniles the same due-process rights enjoyed by adults.

The concept of family treatment has been the object of significant attention. In this approach, the family is viewed as a major influence on the attitudes and behaviours of young persons; the treatment of delinquency therefore emphasizes patterns of interaction between family members. Particular attention is paid to parenting skills, discipline, and control tactics, especially for teenagers.

Defenders of the juvenile justice system point to the fact that most youths whose cases are handled by juvenile courts appear only once. Furthermore, only a small proportion of such offenders will progress to more serious courses of adult crime.

One trend in juvenile justice philosophy at the turn of the 21st century emphasized restorative justice, which accords equal weight to victims’ rights and offender rehabilitation while placing particular value on restitution. Ongoing evaluations of such programs have shown promise toward the reduction of recidivism.