The ideal of centralized cataloging led to increased interest in standardized forms of entry. As libraries grew larger after the Renaissance, it became necessary to devise some form of standard to ensure consistency among several catalogs. Perhaps the most famous, the British Museum Rules, was inspired by Sir Anthony Panizzi and has influenced all succeeding codes, though most of them have departed considerably from the original. The Vatican Rules and the Prussian Instructions have both been subject to commissions for revision, but certainly the most influential code is a joint British and American effort, Catalog Rules: Author and Title Entries, first published in 1908 and revised in 1967. A further revision was published in 1978 as Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, second edition; it is commonly referred to as AACR2.
Douglas John Foskett The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaAnglo-American Cataloguing Rules
The second edition of Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR2) is the most widely used cataloging code, designed for use in the construction of catalogs and other lists in general libraries of all sizes. It is published jointly by the American Library Association, the Canadian Library Association, and the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals in the United Kingdom. AACR2 comprises a detailed set of rules and guidelines for preparing bibliographic records to represent library resources, established to maintain consistency within the catalog and between the catalogs of libraries using the same code. The rules cover the description of areas such as the title, the publisher, the edition, the series, etc., as well as provision of access points for all library materials, including books, serials, cartographic materials, electronic resources, and so on.
AACR2 is structured in two parts. Part I deals with the provision of information describing the item being cataloged, and Part II deals with the rules for determination and establishment of access points under which the descriptive information is to be presented to catalog users and with the making of references to those headings. In both parts the rules proceed from the general to the specific. The second edition of the rules is based on a reconciliation of the British and North American texts of the 1967 edition. This extends to style, which is generally in accordance with The Chicago Manual of Style, and to spellings, which are those of Webster’s New International Dictionary.
Many other discussions, revisions, and simplifications have taken place since the mid-20th century. Short versions of the major codes were published for small libraries in certain countries; the public instruction ministry in Italy issued new rules; a French commission on cataloging issued standards for anonymous works; and in the former Soviet Union, proposals were published for standardizing the transcription of Chinese names into Cyrillic script. All these codes dealt with the use and entering of a consistent form of the names of authors, including Anonymous in the case of anonymous works, and sometimes, as in AACR2, with titles.
AACR2 has been succeeded by Resource Description and Access (RDA), which was released in June 2010. RDA builds on the strengths of AACR2 with some new features that make it more useful for resource description as a cataloging code for the modern libraries operating in a digital environment.
Resource Description and Access
Resource Description and Access (RDA) is the new standard for descriptive cataloging providing data elements, instructions, and guidelines on recording the contents and formulating bibliographic metadata for description and access to information resources covering all types of content and media held in libraries and related cultural organizations, such as museums and archives. RDA is designed for the digital world. The metadata created by following RDA instructions are well formed according to international models for user-focused linked data applications that are compatible with existing records in online library catalogs and also adaptable to new and emerging database structures.
RDA is the successor to Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, second edition (AACR2), which is still the most widely used cataloging standard worldwide. Built on the foundations established by AACR2, the organization of RDA is based on international standards developed by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), such as Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) and Functional Requirements for Authority Data (FRAD).
The creation of RDA was the result of collaboration between representatives from the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, and Australia. RDA was developed by the RDA Steering Committee (formerly the Joint Steering Committee for Development of RDA) as part of its strategic plan (2005–09) to replace AACR2. RDA was initially published in June 2010 under the title RDA Toolkit as an online resource by the American Library Association, the Canadian Library Association, and the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). The text of RDA consists of 10 sections divided into 37 chapters, with 13 appendices, a glossary, and an index. RDA was widely implemented in 2013 by the Library of Congress, the British Library, and other major libraries.
Salman HaiderOther codes
A separate set of codes for subject cataloging emerged mainly in the United States. These subject headings took the form of lists of subject headings, the three best known being the list compiled by Minnie E. Sears, the Library of Congress Subject Headings, and the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) of the U.S. National Library of Medicine.
Thesauri
A new use of the term thesaurus, now widespread, dates from the early 1950s in the work of H.P. Luhn, at International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), who was searching for a computer process that could create a list of authorized terms for the indexing of scientific literature. The list was to include a structure of cross-references between families of notions, in the manner of P.M. Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852) and similar to the structure of faceted classification schemes. A major thesaurus, and one of the earliest, is the Thesaurofacet (1969), a list of engineering terms in great detail designed by Jean Aitchison for the English Electric Company. The thesaurus has proved very useful both for indexing and for searching in machine systems. It is especially helpful in such areas as medicine, aerospace, and other scientific and technical fields.
Thesauri depend upon the concept of controlled vocabulary, subject headings organized into lists that help users locate the appropriate heading for their topic of interest and find related terms used for narrower or broader topics. One of the functions of controlled vocabulary is to select from what may be a large group of synonyms the one term that most accurately describes a topic. When libraries use that one term consistently, their users will know where to look to find materials on any topic of interest. Books on travel in Britain, for example, might be described as travel, tourism, or sightseeing in Britain, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom. By selecting one expression of this topic—for example, “Great Britain—Description and Travel”—a library ensures that all of the books on the topic will be grouped under one subject heading in the catalog.
The disadvantage of controlled vocabulary systems such as subject headings lists is that they are slow to evolve. New topics and new ways of thinking and talking about topics continually evolve, and, although there are ongoing efforts to keep controlled vocabulary lists as up-to-date as possible, they inevitably lag behind ordinary language usage. As a result, some topics may be difficult to find using the subject heading approach. For this reason, many library systems, particularly those that use computerized information retrieval techniques, combine controlled vocabulary such as subject headings with free vocabulary: descriptions of the topic of books or other materials using ordinary language. In these systems, subject headings are supplemented with topic descriptions such as abstracts and summaries, which have no restrictions on descriptive vocabulary.
Classification
While catalogs aim to identify and list items in a collection, schemes of classification have a more general application in arranging documents in a sequence that will make sense and be helpful to the user. Because they display subjects, and not documents, they can be used in several libraries, and some indeed have found applications in many different countries. Like schemes for grouping entries in catalogs, classifications—whether of knowledge based on philosophical principles, of the subject faculties of universities, or of the pragmatic grouping of books on shelves—have formed the basis of many individual systems.