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One of two major functions of libraries, technical services include processes for acquiring, arranging, indexing, and storing the collection.
Acquisition and supply
Criteria for selection
The output of published materials, in all forms, is so vast that no single library, not even the largest, can hope to acquire everything; even in relatively specialized fields, some selection has become necessary, and most libraries have an explicit selection policy. The basic principles of selection vary little among different types of libraries, inasmuch as they derive directly from the known interests of the users. Practice is another matter and varies according to the types of user. A national library aims to hold at least one copy of all the publications of its own country and to have a good representation of foreign works, many of which may be obtained through exchange agreements with other national libraries. University, college, and school libraries relate their choice of acquisitions to the programs of teaching and research in their institutions; the academic level of the material naturally varies according to the level of the student population. An elementary school will hold a good selection of books written for children, but a university will tend not to. Many university libraries try to maintain a relatively complete coverage of the reports issued by government and other research establishments. Some universities are designated as repositories for the reports issued by intergovernmental agencies, such as the United Nations, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the European Union.
An important aspect of selection is learning about new publications that would enhance the library. Various surveys have been made of the ways in which specialists gain new information about their fields of work, and the most popular usually turns out to be informal discussions with colleagues. But this is by nature a haphazard process, and most countries now have, or aim to have, a national bibliography based on the acquisitions of the national library. The British National Bibliography, begun in 1950 at the British Museum, is a leading example: it is published weekly, with regular cumulations for easy access over long periods. It is a tool for subject inquiry searches as well as for current selection.
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions has established a program to increase the range and number of such bibliographic tools. The program, called Universal Bibliographic Control and International MARC, aims to encourage national libraries, or groups of libraries, to institute methods of recording their national publications in a standard format and, wherever possible, of entering them into computer files. This program is accompanied by two additional programs, the Universal Availability of Publication and Universal Dataflow and Telecommunications, which aim to provide the necessary follow-up service of document delivery.
Other aids to the selection of material for acquisition are legion. Many libraries join professional societies and institutions to obtain their publications, which usually contain lists and reviews of new work relevant to their subjects. Leading journals, such as The Times Literary Supplement, The New York Review of Books, Nature, and Science, contain reviews by experts, advertisements for new and forthcoming publications, and review articles covering important new books in special fields.
Acquisition systems
The development of electronic means of document delivery is unlikely to supplant the more traditional sources of supply, the publishing and bookselling trades. Some companies combine the two functions. Purchases by libraries have traditionally generated much of the revenue of local bookshops, but firms operating as specialist library suppliers are able to offer many auxiliary services, such as attaching plastic covers and inserting labels of ownership, because they deal in large-scale bulk supply and can afford to maintain machines for such processes.
The acquisition systems described above are found mostly in countries with long-established traditions of reading, research, libraries, and book trade. Far greater difficulties confront the library services in the developing countries, particularly in Africa and Asia. Even in India and China, with their long history of using books, a steady and satisfactory progress is hindered by shortages of finance, materials, and trained staff. Some universities in these nations have large libraries and receive grants that enable them to acquire foreign as well as national publications, but they often meet with delays caused by administrative procedures, shortage of foreign currencies, and problems of language in the postal services. In most African countries, growth of a national literature is hampered by the centuries-old prevalence of an oral tradition and by the cost of importing even such basic materials as paper.
Many countries in eastern Europe as well as in the Third World look to exchanges as a means of obtaining materials. Some governments allow libraries to exchange duplicate copies of national publications, as a recognized method of compensation without payment in foreign currency. The practice does present certain administrative problems, but it is a useful means of encouraging the international flow of publications as well as of giving practical help in collection building to libraries in countries with limited resources.
Cataloging
However careful and scholarly the methods used in building a collection, without expert guidance to its access and use, the collection remains difficult to approach. Cataloging and classification, well-tried disciplines often combined under the general heading of “indexing,” provide the needed guidance. Both techniques have been in use as long as libraries have existed, and their value in the so-called information age has been enhanced by the use of computers.
The function of the catalog is to identify all the items in a collection and to group like items together. All the great libraries of the ancient world seem to have had lists and inventories, whether kept on clay, stone, papyrus, parchment, palm leaves, or bamboo strips. Examples may be found in museums throughout the world.
Cataloging by author and subject
For many centuries the feature that gave a work its unique identity was the name of the writer, and users of the library were expected to know the names of the authors whose works they wished to consult. This system was eventually supplemented by the development of a subject catalog.
Many factors have contributed to the rise in importance of the subject approach to information. From the earliest times, librarians recognized that readers would be greatly helped if the catalog entries were arranged in groups of related subjects. General classifications of knowledge such as those of Aristotle and Porphyry, scholarly curricula such as the trivium and quadrivium (expounded by Julius Caesar’s librarian Marcus Terentius Varro and persisting as a major influence on Western education), and practical considerations, such as the governmental needs of emperors and priests, all have formed the basis for the arrangement of subject catalogs. Early in the 7th century the scholar Wei Cheng wrote the bibliographic section of the official Sui Dynasty History, dividing the books into four categories: Confucian classics, historical records, philosophical writings, and miscellaneous works.
Since the late 19th century far more attention has been paid to cataloging the subject contents of books as well as the names of their authors. Most of the impetus for this change came from science and technology, where the practice of working in teams in research institutions largely superseded the practice of single individuals, such as Charles Darwin, working for years to complete their research and then publishing the results as a book. The proliferation of specialist journals that publish short papers charting the progress of teamwork has meant that the names of single authors have become somewhat less important as tools for identifying works in libraries. Catalogs that list the subjects of research are more useful to specialists in related fields around the world, who may not know researchers by name but wish to have access to their work.
Catalog systems
Despite a steady, if slow, trend toward standardization, various forms of catalog continue to exist. Sets of entries generally are arranged in one of three catalog systems. The first is the dictionary catalog, in which author, title, subject, and any other entries are filed in a single alphabetical sequence. This form is popular in the United States and in public libraries generally and probably presents the least amount of difficulty for the general or casual reader. The second is the divided catalog, still in alphabetical sequence but with subject entries in a separate file. This form has increased in popularity, and many libraries have divided their former dictionary catalogs, recognizing the growing value of the subject approach. The third is the classed, or classified, catalog, which is more popular in Britain and continental Europe and in some developing countries whose librarians trained there. In the classed catalog, as its name suggests, all the entries are filed in the sequence of a classification scheme—that is, in a systematic order of subjects—but separate alphabetical files link names of authors and of subjects to the notation symbols of the classification scheme used in the main file. The chief advantage of a classed catalog is that the entries are related subjects grouped together in the file; thus, a subject search can be made much more simply than in a catalog based on the alphabet. In addition, when different languages are used, the sequence of entries in a classed catalog does not alter, as is the case with the dictionary.
Vehicles for catalogs
The types of catalog differ on the basis of the information provided in the entries, but the actual physical form may also vary. Originally, catalogs took the same form as the books they listed; being made of the same material, the catalog was an extra item of the collection itself. The earliest catalogs of the great national and scholarly libraries were in book form, with handwritten entries and spaces for new additions. The main problem of the book-type catalog, of course, was the insertion of entries for new acquisitions. Most plans, like that of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, made no attempt to add to the printed file and instead placed vain hopes in the prospect of new editions.
The initial solution to this problem was the creation of a card catalog, each entry having its own card and each card containing only one entry. In principle, such catalogs can grow in size indefinitely; any new entry can be filed between any two existing entries. Thus the catalog offers the opportunity to have a completely up-to-date file: an entry can be made in the catalog immediately after a book has been purchased.
In 1901 the Library of Congress began offering copies of its own catalog cards for sale to other libraries. For many years this proved of inestimable value, particularly to small libraries unable to afford skilled catalogers. The service was also intended to serve as a central cataloging agency. Many eminent librarians, in conferences and in published papers, had lamented what they argued was wasteful duplication of effort involved in the separate cataloging of the same books in many different libraries. They proposed that a central agency undertake the task and make the results generally available, so that any library could use the central catalog thus produced to complete its own highly professional catalog. In the 1950s the British National Bibliography also began to produce cards from the entries in its weekly lists.
These and similar schemes in other countries in Europe achieved a certain success but for various reasons could not be said to have provided the ultimate solution. The advent of the computerized catalog, however, offers a more practicable approach because the storage capacity and the operating speed of even small machines overcome the main drawbacks to card services: delays in production and the labour of filing the cards when they arrive. Computer technology makes it possible for the details of any document to be entered into a file at any point and then to be transmitted to a central data file from which other libraries can obtain details by means of telecommunications links. The process is demonstrated by the revised Machine-Readable Cataloging Project, known since its revision in 1968 as MARC II. Library users find no difficulty in consulting such on-line catalogs, and many prefer them to the more cumbersome, if more familiar, form of cards in drawers. Not only do they enable library patrons to search for books containing a particular word or combination of works in the title, but the patron also can narrow a subject search by finding books that are on two or more topics. The information from the catalog can be alphabetized or put in order by year of publication and printed out as a book list.
The system that accommodates this type of search is known as OPAC (on-line public access computer). Further development of this system has made it possible to integrate other library records with the OPAC, so that patrons can reserve materials that are still on order and can determine if items in the library’s collection are already on loan. The OPAC has been expanded in many libraries to include information about journal articles and sometimes about the community served by the library. The job of cataloger, once highly dedicated to the task of describing library materials for the production of a catalog, is now focused on producing an information retrieval tool that will be of general use to the library’s patrons.
