Social and ethical issues

One of the major developments in Anglo-American philosophy in the last three decades of the 20th century was a turn toward social issues in areas outside ethics and political philosophy, including the philosophy of biology. The logical positivists, with the notable exception of Karl Popper, did not think it appropriate for philosophers of science to engage in debate on social issues; this was the domain of preachers and politicians and the otherwise publicly committed. Today, in contrast, it is thought important—if not mandatory—for philosophers of science in general, and philosophers of biology in particular, to think beyond the strict limits of their discipline and to see what contributions they can make to issues of importance in the public domain.

One of the first attempts at this kind of public philosophizing by philosophers of biology occurred in response to the development in the 1970s of techniques of recombinant DNA (rDNA), which enabled, among other things, the insertion of genes from one or more species into host organisms of very different species. There was much concern that such experiments would lead to the fabrication of monsters. Others worried about the threats that could be posed to humankind and the environment by genetically mixed or modified organisms. Even worse was the possibility that the techniques could be used by despots to manufacture biological weapons cheaply and quickly.

It soon became evident, however, that much of this concern was the result of ignorance, even on the part of biologists. Epidemiologists, for example, demonstrated that the dangers that rDNA research could pose to human populations were much overblown. But there were still (and remain) issues of considerable interest. Echoing a traditional position in evolutionary ethics, opponents claimed that rDNA techniques must be unethical because they contravene the “wisdom of the genes.” Something that nature has wrought must be good and should not be lightly discarded or altered by human technology. But although there are obviously important thoughts included in this line of critique—if one does alter nature, then too often unexpected and unwanted results obtain—the simple appeal to nature or to evolution shows very little (as critics of social Darwinism have long maintained). To revert to the position of T.H. Huxley, often what should be done is exactly the opposite of what evolution has done. Sickle-cell anemia, for example, comes about as the result of a genetic, evolutionarily promoted defense against anemia. Is the attempt to cure sickle-cell anemia therefore morally wrong?

The 1990s were marked by increasing development and application of the techniques of molecular biology. The major scientific-technological undertaking of the decade was of course the Human Genome Project (HGP), which aimed to map the entire human genetic makeup; the initial sequencing of the genome was completed in 2000. The success of the HGP raised important social and ethical issues, particularly regarding the effects of prejudice. Suppose that the genes associated with an inherited disease—such as Huntington disease, which leads to insanity and early death—are identified. Should a healthy person who carries these genes be denied medical insurance? If not, should private, for-profit insurance companies be required to insure such people, or should the state assume the obligation?

Other issues have arisen in connection with cloning and stem cell research. Various religious and conservative groups take extreme objection to the manipulation of reproductive cells, whether for the end of producing new human beings (or other animals) or for the end of aiding already existing ones. The American bioethicist Leon Kass, for example, argues that any attempt to change or direct the natural reproductive processes is morally wrong, because it is an essential part of the human condition to accept whatever nature produces, however inconvenient or unpleasant it may be.

There are epistemological as well as ethical issues at stake here. How exactly should cloning be defined? Is it wrong (or not wrong) in itself, or only by virtue of its consequences? What about identical twins, who seem to be the result of natural cloning, without human aid? Should one think that, because they are not unique, they are in some sense less worthy as human beings? Or does environment and training make them, and any other clone, unique anyway?

It is often thought that differences in moral intuitions regarding these questions stem from the rivalry between the utilitarian and Kantian ethical traditions—the former judging actions in terms of their consequences, in particular the amount of happiness they tend to promote, the latter stressing good intentions and the importance of treating people as ends rather than as means. Conventionally, then, utilitarians are thought to favour cloning and stem-cell research, and Kantians are assumed to oppose it. The divisions are not quite this neat, however, since some utilitarians think that modern applications of molecular biology may do more harm than good, and some Kantians think that such applications are well motivated and treat the individuals they are designed to help as ends and not as means.

The introduction of genetically modified (GM) foods, chiefly plants, in the 1990s provoked a violent and complex debate involving agricultural and pharmaceutical corporations; scientists; environmental, consumer, and public-health organizations; and representatives of indigenous and farming communities in the developing world. Proponents, largely in the United States (where GM foods are widely used), argued that the use of crops that have been genetically modified to resist various pests or diseases can significantly increase harvests and decrease dependence on pesticides that are poisonous to human beings. Opponents contend that genetically modified plant species may create catastrophic changes in the ecosystems in which they are introduced or to which they may travel and that the long-term health effects of consuming GM foods are unknown. Also, if major firms in the West succeed in patenting such genetic modifications, the independence or self-sufficiency of farming communities in the developing world could be undermined. Consideration of many of these issues can be usefully informed by philosophical analysis. Indeed, some of the theoretical discussions covered in earlier sections of this article are directly relevant. How does one define an organism or a species? When is something that has been changed artificially no longer truly what it was? Is function most significant? If changing an adaptation of a species more important than changing simply a by-product—a “spandrel”?

There are also interesting and as-yet-little-discussed questions about balance and equilibrium in analyses of organisms in their native habitats. The ancient idea of a balance of nature has deep roots in Christian theology. But it has been transported—some would say with little change—into modern thinking about equilibrium in nature. Are these modern claims—for example, the well-known theorizing of Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson regarding the balancing effects of immigration, emigration, and extinction on islands—genuinely empirical assertions, or are they, as some critics claim, so vacuous as to be little more than tautologies?

Obviously, answers to questions such as these have important implications in areas far removed from purely theoretical aspects of the philosophy of biology. This application of the discipline to social and ethical issues of public concern should be acknowledged and welcomed. On the other hand, no one would attempt to justify the philosophy of biology solely on the basis of its practical application and relevance. In its own right, it is one of the most vibrant, innovative, and exciting fields of contemporary philosophy.