The nature of theory in social science

Beyond the intentions and meanings associated with behaviour, social scientists are also interested in mapping out the basic structures of society and the resources, social and otherwise, that underwrite these structures. They are also concerned with the unintended consequences of actions and relations. In all of these investigations, social scientists go beyond deciphering the meaning and import of acts and relations to uncover their broader causes and effects. Indeed, depending on how broad and successful social science is in this task, causal explanations become integrated into theories of social life—theories that typically go far beyond the self-understandings of the agents involved. Examples include Keynesian or monetarist theories in economics, kinship theories in anthropology, and modernization theory in political science and sociology. Questions about the nature of social-scientific theorizing abound: for example, can theories in the social sciences involve genuine laws, and what makes a regularity into a law? Can the social sciences make warranted predictions about future actions or relationships? Should the social sciences ultimately aim at explanation in terms of individual actions or in terms of groups or group structures (i.e., should fundamental explanations in the social sciences be individualistic or holistic)?

To these sorts of questions, humanists have sometimes insisted that causality in the social sciences is different in kind than causality in the natural sciences. Others have tried to work out a middle road that combines the best of both the naturalist approach, with its focus on causality, and the humanist approach, which focuses on meaning. The methodological writings of the German sociologist Max Weber are a particularly vivid instance of this.

An important class of theories in the social sciences—so-called competence theories—constitute a distinctive type. Theories of this type explain human behaviour as arising from principles of rationality or from internalized systems of rules. Examples include game theory (including prisoner’s dilemma games), Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar, and Jürgen Habermas’s theory of communicative competence. These examples are indicative of the ways in which theorizing in the social sciences may be fundamentally different from that in the natural sciences.

Meaningful actions involve rationality because they consist of following rules, procedures, principles, and the like. For example, in order to christen a ship, a speaker may need to act in accordance with linguistic rules that specify the circumstances in which an utterance of the form “I christen thee” counts as a christening of a ship. Or, again, principles of economic reasoning specify how much product to bring to market in order to maximize profit. An actor’s competence is his mastery of the rules or norms of rationality that apply to a particular activity, and competence theories are those that seek to describe in detail what these rules and norms are. They proceed by discovering how an idealized actor who is perfectly rational or who has perfectly mastered the relevant rules would behave in various situations.

Another way in which theories in the social sciences are different from those in the natural sciences is that the entities being explained in the social sciences (i.e., human beings), unlike those being explained in the natural sciences, themselves possess their own theories about what they and others are doing. One might call these theories the agents’ self-understanding or their ideology. Moreover, it is plausible to claim (though some theorists have denied this) that agents’ ideology is an important element of any account of how they behave. But this raises the question of what is the relationship, in social-scientific theories, between, on the one hand, the ideology and self-understanding of the agents and, on the other, the theoretical constructs that social-scientific observers of their behaviour might propose. Does the former take precedence over the latter? Does the former constrain the latter? These are questions that philosophers of the natural sciences need not address, because the phenomena studied in the natural sciences are not the product of the ideology of that which is being studied. Indeed, the notion of ideology points to an activity crucial in the social sciences but one potentially in tension with its scientific aspirations, namely, critique.

The role of critique in social science

Critique becomes a possible dimension of social science because the self-understandings that serve as a basis for the actions and relations of agents may themselves be systematically mistaken. That is, agents’ self-understandings may be at variance with their situation, and they may characterize themselves and others (their motivations, their emotions, their beliefs, etc.) in ways that manifest ignorance or even self-deception. They may be under the control of an ideology that masks their social and personal reality, or they may be the victims of an irrationality that hinders them and makes them act in unintelligent or deluded ways. Such irrationality may lie beneath their frustrations or the social conflicts in which they perforce find themselves. All of this suggests that, in order to understand and explain what such people are doing and how they are relating to others, social scientists must engage in what is called ideology critique: they must assess the accuracy and rationality of the basic self-understandings of those whom they study, they must explain why and how any misunderstandings arose and continue to function, and they must suggest in what ways these misunderstandings can be corrected. Examples of important social theories for which ideology critique is central are those of Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Habermas, and some feminist theories.

Deconstruction is yet another form of critique in the social sciences, one inspired by the work of the French philosopher Jacques Derrida and by postmodernism more generally. Deconstruction is the procedure in which that which is hidden in an entity (such as a category or a social formation) is brought to light and shown to be part of the entity, even though it was ostensibly something antithetical to it. For example, the category “heterosexual,” and a social order based on this category, might rest on a contrast between heterosexuality and homosexuality, in which the latter is typically conceived as defective. But deconstruction might show that heterosexual identity is in fact parasitically dependent on homosexuality, even as the former tries to exclude or subordinate the latter—indeed, it might show that the difference between these two terms is constitutive of their meaning and, thus, that homosexuality is a hidden aspect of the identity of heterosexuals. What is true for the opposition between heterosexuality and homosexuality may also be true for other antinomies: white versus black, colonizer versus colonized, sane versus mad, or saved versus damned.

The assessment of rationality or the coherence of schemes of meaning (including ideology critique and deconstruction) raise questions about the objectivity of social science. How do social scientists go about assessing rationality or coherence in a way that avoids simply judging others on the basis of the scientist’s own predilections? Of course, questions about objectivity arise even if assessments of rationality and coherence play no essential role in the social sciences, for the simple reason that social science investigates phenomena that include the social scientists themselves and that often have close bearing on their own values and on what they hope or fear for themselves and their fellow humans. Questions about the conditions and nature of objectivity are thus a central concern of the philosophy of social sciences.