Just as plants can be seen as divine forces, so can types or species of animals. For instance, the cult of the snake is widespread and is especially important in the Indian tradition. The serpent is vital in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) story of Adam and Eve and appears in the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh as one who knows the secret of rejuvenation. The snake has a fertility aspect because of its possible phallic significance and because it lives in holes in the life-giving earth. The cult of the monkey is important in India, having its essence in the figure of Hanuman, half monkey and half human. It is possible that such theriomorphic cults (in which gods are represented by various animal forms) have been assisted by rituals in which priests wear masks representing the relevant divinities, a practice that may in turn explain the hybrid half-human form. Examples of the wide variety of animal and living forms in which gods appear include Huitzlipochtli (hummingbird; Aztec); Cipactli (alligator; Aztec); Vishnu’s avatars, or incarnations (fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion; Hindu); the Rainbow Snake (Australian Aboriginal); Cernunnos (stag god with antlers; Celtic religion); and Nandi (bull; Hindu). A figure partly in animal guise found in the Trois Frères cave at Ariège, France, may represent a complex lord of the beasts analogous to the supposed figure of Shiva (the destroyer and re-creator in Hindu mythology) found at sites in the Indus valley, while a bird-man figure at Lascaux, France, may depict a priestly representation of a divine being. Thus, theriomorphism seems to have a very ancient pattern. In brief, various cultures have taken existing species in their environment and woven them into the pantheon—partly because of their essential dependence on the animals and partly for other reasons, such as similarities between animal forms and other sacred forces (e.g., the analogy of the lion to the force behind kingship).

Because human beings can enter into a living relationship with the supernatural beings that surround and dominate their lives, it has always been natural to model the gods as human beings. Such anthropomorphism is most evident in the Greek tradition, in which the Homeric gods are brilliantly and unashamedly human in their passions and thoughts. The human model has been assisted by the representation of the gods in art, for a statue is not just a symbolic representation of a god but often his place of presence and influence. Thus, in a number of cultures, the images are treated as replete with divinity.

Just as gods can be human in character, so men can be conceived as divine, either by becoming identified with deities (e.g., through descent) or by displaying appropriate power. Thus, divine kingship was a not uncommon feature of the ancient Middle East. It was also found in the Roman world, when the emperors were divinized, and in Japan and China, where the emperor was son of heaven. Culture heroes and other significant humans could be elevated to semidivine status or more—e.g., Guandi and other heroes in the Chinese tradition and Rama and Krishna in India. Strictly, the succession of sages known as buddhas and Tirthankaras in the Buddhist and Jain traditions, respectively, were not conceived as divine but came to be objects of a cult. In the Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”), celestial buddhas and bodhisattvas (those vowed to become buddhas) came to be profoundly important for devotional religion; from a functional point of view, the Mahayana has operated as a polytheistic system, united, however, under an overarching doctrine of emptiness, or the void (shunya), according to which all things are said to be empty of the characteristics assigned to them. The Theravada (“Way of the Elders”) accepted the principle that virtuous followers of the Buddha could be translated in the next life to a heavenly existence in which they would have godlike status (an impermanent status, however, for gods share the universal transitoriness of all living beings), but such gods were scarcely the objects of a cult.

Functional deities

In addition to the various forces operating in nature, various social and other functions are divinized. Thus, the god Brahma in the Vedic tradition, besides being creator, contains and expresses in personal form the power implicit in the Brahman class. There are gods of healing, such as Asclepius in Greece, and of seafaring, agriculture, and so on. The most elaborate reflection of human concerns is, perhaps, to be found in the later Daoist pantheon, which provided a heavenly counterpart to the Chinese imperial court. In a number of societies there have been gods of war, such as Mars (ancient Rome) and Skanda (India); gods of learning, such as Sarasvati (India); and gods of love, such as Aphrodite (Greece) and Kama (India). Even such abstractions as the directions (north, south, east, and west) have been divinized. The fact that these varied entities and relationships have been taken as gods is, perhaps, partly the result of the mythic style of thinking, in which distinctions between natural forces and social conventions are not clearly perceived.

Of special importance regarding human affairs are the gods concerned with death and judgment after death, such as Osiris in ancient Egypt, Yama in India, Hades in Greece, and Hel in pre-Christian Scandinavian religion. There are also gods associated with cemeteries and more generally with patterns of the disposal of the dead.

The various gods must be seen against the background of a whole host of spirits, demons, and other supernatural forces prevalent in the environment of pastoral and agricultural communities. Among entities hostile to human beings are the antigods, very often older gods, such as the Titans in Greece, who have been displaced by later deities, or gods worshipped by a people conquered by a new dominant folk. The warfare between the old and new can be woven into dramatic myths of the fight between good and evil. This is well brought out in the major myth of the Orphic writings: Zeus’s son Dionysus-Zagreus was killed and eaten by the Titans, who in turn were destroyed, burned up by Zeus’s lightning flash. Humanity is made of the ashes, and therefore each human being is a compound of divinity and titanic evil. Purification from this evil brings redemption and release from the round of reincarnation. Sometimes, however, the ambivalence of good and evil is built into the same deity, so that creation and destruction and good and evil are seen as complementing one another.