Mass production and mass appeal

Cigarettes were originally sold as an expensive handmade luxury item for the urban elites of Europe. However, cigarette manufacture was revolutionized by the introduction of a rolling machine called the Bonsack machine, which was patented by American James Bonsack in the United States in 1880. The machine was soon put into use by the American industrialist James Buchanan Duke, who founded the American Tobacco Company (ATC) in 1890. Inexpensive mass-produced cigarettes, promoted by Duke’s aggressive marketing methods and advertising, gradually led to a decline in pipe-smoking and tobacco-chewing habits in the United States. In Britain the manufacturer Henry Wills began using the machine in Bristol in 1883, and this enabled him to dominate the cigarette trade within just a few years. Then, in 1901, Duke attempted to enter the British market. The subsequent “tobacco war” resulted in a standoff as the British manufacturers united within the Imperial Tobacco Company. An agreement in 1902 allowed both sides to claim a victory. Duke retreated to the United States, and the British market was left to Imperial, but together they formed the British-American Tobacco Company (BAT) to market and sell their products to the rest of the world, especially India, China, and the British dominions. Although other American companies entered the global market following the breakup of the ATC—the result of a 1911 Supreme Court ruling under the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)—BAT continued to meet much success. In 1999 the company produced more than 800 billion cigarettes per year, which made it the world’s third largest tobacco company (just behind the Philip Morris USA and Philip Morris International companies, together ranking second, and the China National Tobacco Corporation, ranking first).

The success of the cigarette was due not only to the business strategies of the large firms but also to the rapid adoption by urban male youths of the relatively inexpensive and easy-to-smoke lighter flue-cured Virginia tobacco. In particular, this product became a favourite of teenage boys—a situation that led to public outcries, to the revival of antitobacco movements in France, Australia, Britain, Canada, and the United States (spearheaded there by the seasoned antidrink campaigners of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union), and to the eventual passing, in the 1890s and 1900s, of legislation across most territorial and federal states banning the sale of tobacco to minors. The legislation, however, was largely ineffective, and World War I quickly put an end to the critique of young men’s cigarette smoking. In the trenches cigarettes were easier to smoke than pipes, and tobacco companies, the military, governments, and newspapers organized a constant supply of cigarettes to the troops—an official recognition of the importance of tobacco in offering immediate relief from physical and psychological stress. Certain companies did extraordinarily well from the war: Imperial’s Players and Woodbine brands in Britain and, more spectacularly, R.J. Reynolds’s Camel in the United States. Introduced only in 1913, Camel had reached sales of 20 billion cigarettes by 1920, following a government supply order and a successful marketing campaign. The war, therefore, transformed smoking habits. As early as 1920, more than 50 percent of the tobacco consumed in Britain was in the form of cigarettes. A less-urban U.S. population lagged behind, but a similar story in World War II saw cigarettes achieve more than 50 percent of all tobacco sales in 1941. Several other industrial countries matched this trend.

The first half of the 20th century was the golden age of the cigarette. In 1950 around half of the population of industrialized countries smoked, though that figure hides the fact that in countries such as the United Kingdom up to 80 percent of adult men were regular smokers. Smoking was an acceptable form of social behaviour in all areas of life—at work, in the home, in bars, and at the cinema—and advertisers were keen to show the full range of leisure activities made complete only through the addition of a cigarette. Smoking cigarettes was popular across all social classes and increasingly among women, once associations of smoking with deviant sexuality began to fade in the 1920s. This development had less to do with the efforts of advertisers—who, for example, in 1925 introduced the Marlboro brand as a woman’s cigarette: “Mild as May”—and more to do with the impact of war and a direct confrontation with societal attitudes by so-called new women. Most important, the cigarette habit was legitimated, celebrated, and glamourized on the Hollywood screen and transported to the rest of the world. Movie stars such as Edward G. Robinson, James Cagney, Spencer Tracy, Gary Cooper, and especially Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall, and Marlene Dietrich raised the image of the cigarette to that of the iconic, ensuring it would never lose its sophisticated and loftily independent connotations.