Although right whales were on the verge of extinction, neither Britain nor America could catch the vast stocks of “wrong” whales, the rorquals (chiefly the blue, humpback, fin, and sei whales). With top speeds of 30–50 km (20–30 miles) per hour, these cetaceans were too fast and too heavy; they also sank after dying. The American Thomas Roys employed innovations such as the rocket harpoon during the 1860s, but these were of limited success. A Norwegian, Svend Foyn, brought whaling into the modern age with the construction of his 86-ton, seven-knot Spes et Fides, the first steam-powered whale catcher. Generating only 50 horsepower, it relied on stealth and various new technologies, including Foyn’s newly invented harpoon cannon. This forward-mounted, muzzle-loading gun fired a heavy harpoon that would bend without breaking, the head of which was equipped with a time-delay grenade to damage vital organs or cause massive bleeding. Power from the main engines could be diverted to playing, raising, and towing whales for processing ashore. Carcasses were inflated with compressed air (another Foyn innovation) so that they would float while awaiting collection. Although the flesh and oil were fresh enough for human consumption, rapid processing was essential. At the shore station, whales were winched up a slipway to a platform where blubber was peeled off, cut up, and boiled. Bones were sawed up and boiled with inedible meat for low-grade oil, and the residue was dried and ground for fertilizer or animal feed. “Total carcass utilization” became a slogan of the leading companies.

Foyn’s success led to the establishment of other shore stations in Norway, Scotland, and Newfoundland. Near the turn of the century, demand for whale oil suddenly increased as soap and margarine production ran ahead of fat supplies, and Normann’s hydrogenation process enabled the transformation of oil into fat. Norwegian and British shore stations opened in the Antarctic, South America, and South Africa, and catches rose from approximately 2,000 to more than 20,000 per year in the first decade of the 20th century. By 1909 pelagic whaling had begun in Antarctic waters, and further technological innovations were required.

Starting just before World War I, the gradual shift from shore stations to floating factories was to be the most significant development in the history of whaling. Floating factories steamed into previously unreachable waters, servicing their catchers, processing whales, and transferring oil and meat to tankers and cargo vessels (which also brought fuel oil) for timely shipment to market. Factory ships were all converted merchant vessels until 1929, when various specialized designs starting at 1,500 tons were realized. Early versions averaged 6,500 tons, followed by 11,000–25,000-ton craft, though optimum size became 16,000 tons. These ships had the ability to bring 100-ton rorquals on board—a feat first accomplished in 1925 by installation of a slipway through the stern. Powerful winches and a “claw” fastened around the whale’s tail were used to haul the animal from the water to an open butchering deck, or “plan,” where it was rapidly dismembered to release heat and prevent putrefaction. Rendering then proceeded as in land stations, although spatial constraints required that specific equipment be developed for floating factories: butchering machinery was compact; water condensing plants were introduced; and, above all, the “tween-decks” Hartmann high-pressure cookers were developed. Loaded with whale flesh through deck hatches, the cookers were the linchpin of a system allowing a 100-ton blue whale to be disposed of in an hour while greatly improving the yield of premium oil.

Guns were also improved. Breechloaders were introduced in 1924, and in the 1960s, after much trial and error, electric harpoons that caused instant death were introduced to save pain and raise meat quality. Radio communication was used extensively, and airplanes (later helicopters) were employed to spot whales. But the most obvious improvement was the “gunner’s bridge,” introduced in the 1925–26 whaling season, by which the harpooner-master could rush from the bridge to an elevated gun at the bow.

Although Britain produced much capital and commercial organization, Norway dominated this period of rapidly rising oil production. Many of the expeditions and improvements (and almost all the crewmen) were of Norwegian origin. By 1930 these predominantly pelagic efforts were supported by 6 shore stations, 41 factory ships, and 232 catchers in the Antarctic. Whaling flourished elsewhere but was relatively unimportant in comparison.

As larger floating factories accelerated processing, there was pressure to improve catching, and during the 1930s the number of catchers per factory rose from four to eight. Catchers became progressively larger and faster and finally were able to overtake swimming rorquals regularly. The Japanese developed diesel engines, and boats equipped with these engines generated 2,500 horsepower while displacing only 600 tons. Although they were very noisy, their lack of stealth was more than compensated for by greater speed and maneuverability. Such efficiency, however, greatly increased fuel consumption and running costs and ultimately led to economic problems and reckless overfishing.

After World War II (during which 27 floating factories were sunk), whale oil was so important to the fat rations of Europe, and meat to Japan and Russia, that a wave of newer, larger factories (up to 32,000 tons) were built, as were 18-knot diesel-powered catchers. British and Norwegian companies controlled greater than 80 percent of the trade from 1945 to 1950, and their success attracted other states to whaling—most notably the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, and Japan. Progressively smaller whales were taken as overfishing decimated first the blue whale population in the 1940s, the fin and humpback whales between 1955 and 1970, and the sei whale thereafter. Whaling shifted from the Antarctic (where some 1.4 million whales had been killed) to the North Pacific. A renewed attack on the sperm whale took place in the 1950s when new uses were found for its oil.

With no more concentrations of large whales remaining, European companies withdrew after the 1962–63 season, leaving whaling chiefly to the Soviets and the Japanese. Soviet enterprises were subsidized, and modern refrigeration allowed the Japanese to make a valuable delicacy out of the meat. But even this whaling was doomed as it rapidly depleted the last of the “commercial” whales. No factories sailed after 1978, and by the 1980s the international whale trade was dead, although small-scale coastal whaling continued.