Many advanced artiodactyls have elaborate courtship behaviour, a regular component of which is for the male to sniff or lick the female’s urine, and afterward to raise his head slightly with upcurled lips. This behaviour, which has been called flehmen, apparently enables the male to recognize females in heat. In the mating ceremonies of tragelaphine antelopes (kudus, bushbucks, and others) the male follows the female, nuzzling her neck several times. When he mounts, he lays his neck along hers so that their heads touch. In Thomson’s gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii), following the flehmen behaviour, the male runs close behind the female and finally taps her hindleg with his foreleg. Similar leg contact also occurs in some other antelopes. Its function could be to test the female’s readiness to mate, to habituate her to contact, or to heighten her readiness to mate. It appears to be equivalent to the neck contact of tragelaphines. During mounting, the male Thomson’s gazelle holds his head high and does not touch the female’s flanks with his forelegs; the pair may continue walking. This is probably a more advanced pattern of events than that in tragelaphines. The kob antelope has elaborate displays after mating. These and the specialized sexual displays seem to be a consequence of this species’ tightly clustered territories on the mating grounds. Another pattern occurs in the normally solitary Indian hog deer (Cervus porcinus); as many as 20 or 30 aggregate loosely in a certain area, then females and males leave in pairs and usually remain together until they have mated. Mating in artiodactyls often intensifies toward dawn and dusk.

Gestation periods vary and are related in part to the size of the animal. They range from four months in the small chevrotain to 14 months in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and over 14 months in the giraffe. Females of normally gregarious species become solitary a few days before giving birth. The female chital, or axis deer, for example, remains near a patch of dense bush and high grass to which she can retreat if endangered. The female collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) withdraws to a burrow. The European wild pig gives birth in a rough nest.

In temperate regions, birth takes place in spring or early summer, and in tropical areas there are often more births during or just after the rainy season. The absence of a well-defined breeding season in a species may indicate less rigorous environmental conditions, which sometimes vary in different parts of a species’ range. Warthogs have one restricted breeding season in most of eastern and southern Africa, while elsewhere two seasons or year-round breeding have been recorded. The breeding season of the waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) is continuous in Uganda, but in Zambia its breeding season shows a sharp peak at the height of the rains.

Most modern artiodactyls have one young at each birth, but there are some well-known exceptions among ruminants. The Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis) bears twins or triplets, but during gestation carries even more fetuses; early records (now known to be incorrect) of large litters were based on observations of dead pregnant females containing the large number of fetuses. The mule deer, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), roe deer, pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), and saiga (Saiga tatarica) commonly bear twins. In the white-tailed and mule deer and in the saiga, a higher percentage of twins are borne by the older females; this is probably true in other species. The number of young is usually three in the warthog, five in the European wild pig, and two in peccaries.

The female wild pig almost ignores her young, which free themselves from their birth membranes and seek a teat. Female camels show comparatively little maternal attention and do not eat the afterbirth (the fetal membranes and placenta). Ruminants generally eat the afterbirth, as well as the dung and urine of the young, thus helping to prevent discovery of the young by predators. Licking of the young tends to facilitate its recognition by the mother. An artiodactyl is normally precocious (well developed) at birth and may weigh one-tenth as much as its mother. An extreme example of precocity is the wildebeest calf, which rises within five minutes of birth, follows its mother within another five minutes, and can move as fast as an adult in 24 hours. Young deer fawns “freeze” during danger but rejoin the herd when the danger is long past or when retrieved by the mother.

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Pigs and hippopotamuses are weaned after a few months, but among higher artiodactyls, lactation lasts longer. Wildebeest, for example, suckle for almost a year, although they start to eat grass when only a few days old. This may either maintain a bond between parent and offspring and form the base for larger social groupings or help to “develop” the four-chambered stomach. Higher artiodactyls eat soil when they begin to eat solid food, probably to establish a normal flora and fauna in the rumen (the first of the four stomach chambers).

Locomotion

Artiodactyls are preyed upon by carnivores and therefore need speed and agility to escape death. They have an added disadvantage in the sheer weight of their very large stomachs, which they need in order to digest plant food. Running ability reaches an extreme in advanced artiodactyls living in open country. The hippopotamus, with an adult weight of 2,500 to 3,000 kg (5,500 to 6,600 pounds), is the only living artiodactyl big enough to need heavy, pillar-like limbs for support.

In the normal walking of artiodactyls, the legs move in the following order: (a) left front, (b) right rear, (c) right front, (d) left rear. This basic pattern is masked in faster walking or trotting by each foot being lifted off the ground before the one ahead of it in the sequence reaches the ground, resulting in telescoping the first (a and b) and second (c and d) pairs of movements. In galloping or fast running the two front legs leave the ground one immediately after the other, then the two back legs. The chief propulsive force in locomotion comes from the back legs, except in the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), in which the front legs provide the main propulsive power.

Camels often amble, both legs of each side moving together, and the giraffe and the okapi always use this walking gait. Here the middle two (b and c) and the first and last (a and d) actions of the normal walking pattern occur together. The giraffe, having a short body and great height, could not adopt the normal ruminant gait without tripping. The long neck moves back and forth in time with the strides and helps smooth the movement. Galloping by the giraffe is of the normal ungulate type.

Artiodactyls living among bush or rocky cover may develop a bounding sort of gait in which the legs are pulled up very sharply during each stride. Deer and some antelopes are examples. When walking, species in such habitats are supported by the diagonally opposite legs for a greater length of time in each stride than are fast-running, open-country ruminants. This is a more primitive stable position and allows an easier leap from hidden danger. Some bovids, notably goats in Eurasia and the klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) of Africa, are especially agile on rocky slopes and precipitous ground.

The maximum speeds of some artiodactyls are: warthog, 48 km (30 miles) per hour; camel, 14–16 km/hr (9–10 mph); giraffe, a little over 48 km/hr (30 mph); Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), 56 km/hr (35 mph); Thomson’s gazelle, 80 km/hr (50 mph).