Natural history

Reproductive cycle

Like most fishes, ostariophysans are either male or female throughout life; they do not change sex. Eggs develop in the ovaries of the female and spermatozoa (milt) in the testes of the male. In temperate zones most species breed in the spring, when water temperatures are rising and day lengths (photoperiods) are increasing. In tropical regions many fishes spawn throughout the year. All ostariophysans lay eggs; none gives birth to living young. Eggs are fertilized externally in the water in all species except auchenipterid catfishes and the South American characins of the subfamily Glandulocaudinae, in which insemination is internal. Development is direct; newly hatched individuals do not pass through morphological changes (metamorphosis) but instead are miniature replicas of their parents. The age at sexual maturity depends on the species and relative body size. Individuals of many small species reproduce when only a few months old and rarely live more than one to a few years. Large species attain sexual maturity when several years old, and in captivity the common carp has been known to live more than 50 years.

Breeding

Distinct pairing occurs in most ostariophysans, and courtship behaviour in characiforms and cypriniforms often consists of elaborate displays by males in brilliant nuptial coloration. The eggs are heavier than water (demersal) and sink; most are sticky and adhere to the surface or to various objects. Characins and cyprinids generally deposit their eggs among aquatic plants, under stones and logs, or in shallow pits in gravel and sand. Among the many exceptions is the characin (Copeina arnoldi); the female actually leaps out of the water to lay her eggs on the undersides of overhanging leaves (or, in captivity, of aquarium covers), to which she clings, joined by the male, during egg deposition. The parents then splash water on the fertilized eggs during development. The female bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus) deposits its eggs in the gill cavity of freshwater mussels by means of an elongated ovipositor, which she inserts into the mussel’s incurrent siphon. Catfishes choose breeding sites in streams and ponds, generally in quiet water among plants or on mud, sand, gravel, or debris. The nest may be a simple circular depression (as in bullheads [Ameiurus]) or a tunnel-like affair in the bank (as in the channel catfish [Ictalurus punctatus]). Migrations comparable to those of salmon and eels are unknown among the ostariophysans, but the tendency to migrate occurs among suckers (Catostomidae), which swarm upstream into small tributaries and spawn over gravel or sand bottoms, and in other riverine species such as the mahseer (Tor) and the African tigerfish (Hydrocynus).

Parental care

Although many species exhibit no parental care, nest building and egg guarding are widespread among ostariophysans. Some cyprinids, such as the chubs (Nocomis), build massive pyramidal nests of stones; they desert the nests once spawning is completed. Other species of breeding minnows often swarm over these nests, and the mixing of eggs and sperm from different species frequently produces hybrids. The eggs of characins are commonly guarded by the male. Catfishes provide their eggs with considerable protection, either by guarding nests or by carrying the eggs with them. Oral incubation is practiced in sea catfishes (Ariidae); the male carries from 10 to 50 marble-sized eggs in the mouth cavity until hatching. The male continues to protect the hatchlings in his mouth even after the young have begun to feed independently. In certain species of banjo catfishes (Aspredinidae), the eggs are anchored to spongy tentacles on the underside of the female’s abdomen. Some female callichthyid catfish carry eggs on the abdomen only for fertilization; others deposit their adhesive eggs in froth nests and guard them. The loricariid catfishes employ various methods; some lay adhesive eggs in cavities, others carry them under the lower lip, and a few deposit them on rocks, where they are cleaned, fanned, and guarded by the male.

Defense

Ostariophysans with bright colours and gaudy patterns are popular among tropical fish fanciers; however, many other small species are somberly coloured, relying on this protective coloration for passive defense from enemies. Large carnivorous forms such as the African tigerfish and the South American piranhas have powerful jaws and strong teeth, extremely effective weapons for defense as well as for offense. Most catfishes and some Old World cyprinids possess spines (hardened fin rays) in the dorsal and pectoral fins. The spines alone afford a considerable degree of protection; in addition, venom glands develop at the base of the spines in some bullheads and madtoms of North America (Ictaluridae), labyrinthic catfishes (Clariidae), and sea catfishes (Ariidae and Plotosidae). Painful but rarely fatal injuries result when the skin of a human victim is punctured and venom injected.

Although a variety of freshwater fishes can generate an electrical charge, only two develop sufficient voltage to stun other animals, including humans—the electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) and the electric catfish (Malapterurus electricus).