When not self-published, as was often the case, the better comic book or comic strip compilations and graphic novels were marketed through mainstream bookstores and published by major publishers such as Penguin and Gollancz, as well as by smaller, specialized publishers, such as Fantagraphics and Kitchen Sink Press. Academic conferences since the first held in Lucca, Italy, in 1965, multiplied, as did exhibitions. Museums, libraries, and study centres were set up, the largest being The International City of the Cartoon and the Image in Angoulême, France, with a counterpart in Brussels (The Belgian Centre for Comic Strip Art). In addition, a number of Web sites were created that were devoted to the cartoon and the comic strip, including digital encyclopaedias and virtual museums. The art of the comic strip was taught for the first time in major art schools (notably the School of Visual Arts in New York) and entered academic curricula. Critical magazines were launched to encourage quality and experimentation (in France, Phénix [1960–77]; in the United States, Comics Journal [begun 1977], followed by the International Journal of Comic Art [begun 1999]; and in the United Kingdom, European Comic Art [begun 2008]).

Scholarship on comic strips abounded, including historical, aesthetic, ideological, semiological (especially in Europe), and philosophical approaches. The classics were reprinted and sold in boxed sets; guides, dictionaries, indexes, and series appeared with, on occasion, the whole corpus of a comic book artist’s personal work and critical oeuvre catalogue in a luxury format such as had once been reserved to the great artists of the world. One of the greatest Disney artists of them all, Carl Barks, sole creator of more than 500 of the best Donald Duck and other stories, was rescued from the oblivion to which the Disney policy of anonymity would consign him to become a cult figure. His Collected Works ran to 30 luxurious folio volumes. Walt Kelly’s Pogo was first republished in 11 volumes (1989–2000). Especially in Europe, elite intellectuals such as Alain Robbe-Grillet, Umberto Eco, Roland Barthes, and Alain Resnais have validated the comics; in the United States, major filmmakers—notably George Lucas and Steven Spielberg—have acknowledged their artistic debt to comics, which they have used as both inspiration and source material.

At the turn of the 21st century, there were several hundred comics (and cartoon) sites on the Internet and many dozens of comics available online, offering current and classic strips, with simultaneous opportunity to buy them on merchandise or have them delivered daily by e-mail. Archival links allowed users to access by date and subject any comic previously published in the series. Despite this easy access to the smaller formats, book-length graphic novels and comic strip anthologies sold in increasing numbers. The book format was more attractive to public and university libraries than the slim pamphletlike comic books that continued to be assiduously collected and preserved by private collectors, who paid four-figure sums for single issues at auctions for the classics and early, rare issues.

“Adult” as the character of the new comic book and graphic novel was proclaimed to be, the core market remained among youth and young adults (the 17–25 age bracket), and many of the creators were young, as was the case in popular music and film, to which comics were often linked. The transition from the juvenile to the “young adult” market is exemplified in Britain’s 2000 ad, which flourished from 1978 to 1985 (and continues in the 21st century at a lower circulation level), was reprinted in the United States, and at its peak sold 120,000 copies per week. Its chief feature was Judge Dredd; written from a cynical perspective on American culture and the authoritarian state, the strip follows a quasi-fascist law enforcer in a post-nuclear-war world who rules Mega City One (part New York City, part Thatcherite London). Compared with other comics, it was printed on better paper and was flashier in style, and it was made into a book as well as a film. The French equivalent was Métal Hurlant (begun 1975), composed of adventure stories by Jean Giraud (also known as Moebius), which redefined the medium, using openly erotic, stunning visuals with glossy, airbrushed, fully painted effects. This work, together with the highly influential magazine (À Suivre) (begun 1978), reestablished the graphic novel and showcased new, experimental talent. The central figure in the European adult graphic novel was Giraud, a versatile master of the adventure and science fiction genres at their most sophisticated and considered by some to be the world’s best in those genres. In popularity and quality, only the Italian comics creator Hugo Pratt, with his Corto Maltese (begun 1970), came close.

The shift of artists and public toward the graphic novel may have been facilitated by a commercial crisis in the later 1990s, when the traditional comic book lost sales and publishers collapsed. Even the mighty Marvel group declared bankruptcy in 1998, though it later revived. Shops were closed and titles canceled. This was connected to competition for the juvenile market from video and then computer games and the Internet. Indeed, every major comics publisher now has an Internet site, and some comics appear only there. But the industry as a whole was much sustained beginning in the 1970s by specialized shops—rather than newsstands—which now form the major outlet for comics.

The fact-based comic: historical, didactic, political, narrative

The comic book format has long been used to retell history, myths and legends, and literary classics; a very precocious example of the latter is Cham’s parody of Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables, published 1862–63 in installments parallel with those of the original novel. In the 20th century, Classics Comics and Classics Illustrated from the Gilberton Company, extracts from which passed into high school texts, were a conscious response to the gruesome excesses of the “horror comics” in mid-century. The didactic-communicative advantages of the text-and-image combination, and not least the humorous format, have been adopted for all kinds of educational, instructional, and even technical materials in the United States, Japan, and elsewhere. A “for beginners” series, started in Britain and soon adopted in the United States and elsewhere, explained the life and thought of revolutionary thinkers (Darwin, Marx, Einstein, Freud, etc.), and cartoon “people’s histories” (e.g., of the United States, of the universe) proliferated, the specialty of the award-winning Larry Gonick and the Mexican cartoonist Rius (Eduardo del Río). These are at once elementary introductions and sophisticated presentations of sometimes difficult material (Gonick, for instance, has produced “cartoon guides” to physics, genetics, and computer science); they mix line drawings and explanations with asides, political observations, touches of satire, and farcical, silly, and obviously anachronistic elements, and they sometimes use photographic and other kinds of visual documentation. The text naturally tends to become relatively significant without being totally dominant. In these works too the grid system of panel narrative is usually radically loosened or altogether abandoned. Such books have been welcomed into the classroom at all levels, from primary school to university. These graphic techniques have also been employed by the U.S. Department of Defense to demonstrate how to load warheads and by the Central Intelligence Agency to show how to subvert governments.

Left-wing American activists have made particular use of comics, from Kurtzman’s narrative antiwar Korean War histories in Mad magazine to Leonard Rifas’s informational comics opposing atomic and nuclear weapons and Joel Andreas’s Addicted to War (1993). The comic book format has been used as investigative journalism critical of U.S. foreign policy in a way that the newspaper strips generally have not. Brought to Light (1989), published by the now-defunct nonprofit law firm Christic Institute, is a docudrama investigating the Iran-Contra Affair and the related La Penca bombing in a highly polished classic adventure-story manner. Using the graphic novel format, comics journalist Joe Sacco denounced Serb and NATO war crimes in the former Yugoslavia in Safe Area Goražde (2000), and he examined the Palestinian viewpoint in Palestine (published in a single volume, 2001; winner of an American Book Award in 1996). Jack Jackson, author of Comanche Moon: A Picture Narrative About Cynthia Ann Parker (1979) and Los Tejanos (c. 1982; “The Texans”), offered a revisionist view of the history of the American Southwest. In France Jacques Tardi’s C’était la guerre des tranchées: 1914–1918 (1993; “It Was the War of the Trenches: 1914–1918”) brought an antimilitarist perspective to his treatment of World War I, and Nakazawa Keiji dealt with the effects of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima in Hadashi no Gen (begun 1973, originally published monthly in serial form; Barefoot Gen).

One of the earliest and most noteworthy cartoonists to offer opinions on controversial topics was the American cartoonist Garry Trudeau, whose Doonesbury (begun 1970) in the early 21st century ran in more than 1,400 newspapers throughout the world. Making clear through his strips his sympathy for liberal social movements such as feminism and the antiwar movement and his hostility toward several conservative U.S. administrations, Trudeau placed his characters in the midst of such events as the Watergate Scandal and the Iraq War to denounce those who were responsible. One of the most influential editorial cartoonists, he was regularly censored by newspaper editors. Nevertheless, he won a Pulitzer Prize for cartooning in 1975. Following a group of college classmates from adulthood through middle age, Trudeau alternated gag strips with episodes that continued over an extended period. His drawing style, though in itself unremarkable at best, is quite successful when combined with his acute and eloquent dialogue. Somewhat similar is the work of the British socialist cartoonist Steve Bell, whose caustic strip If… (begun 1981) appeared daily in The Guardian. His start in children’s comics is evident in his crude, chaotic linear style and composition.

Compared with Doonesbury and If…, Scott Adams’s Dilbert takes office politics far more seriously than national politics. Set in a stereotypical business office, “Dilbert” takes a narrow, amused look at the bureaucratic excesses of the business world. It is extraordinarily successful, being printed in some 2,000 newspapers in more than 65 countries. Time magazine placed Dilbert among the most influential Americans of 1997 (he was the only fictional character to make the list), and Adams’s The Dilbert Principle (1997) became the top-selling management book of that year.