Francisco de Vitoria

Francisco de Vitoria (born probably 1486, Vitoria, Álava, Castile—died August 12, 1546) was a Spanish theologian best remembered for his defense of the rights of the Indians of the New World against Spanish colonists and for his ideas of the limitations of justifiable warfare.

Early life and education

Vitoria was born in the Basque province of Álava. He entered the Dominican order and was sent to the University of Paris, where he was to remain as student and then lecturer for nearly 16 years. He returned to Spain in 1523 to lecture in Valladolid, and he had already begun his investigation of the morality of colonization when he was elected in 1526, by an enthusiastic majority of students, to the prime chair of theology at Salamanca.

The aim of Salamanca University was to present the then new Renaissance scholarship in a framework of scholastic reasoning in the medieval style. At Salamanca Vitoria addressed himself to most of the critical debates of his time. In lecturing on the wars between France and Spain, he did not adopt the common Spanish view that the French king must be guilty because he refused to take either heresy or the Turkish menace seriously. Instead, he saw faults on both sides and warned that the Franco-Spanish feud would be the ruin of Christendom. He strongly condemned the behaviour of councillors, courtiers, and governors; he also criticized the clergy for failure to take up residence in their parishes, for holding more than one office at a time, and for their indifference to the poor.

Vitoria’s anticolonial views

Vitoria was doubtful of the justice of the Spanish conquest of the New World. As a friar, he refused to agree that war might be made on people simply because they were pagans or because they refused conversion—for belief was an act of the will and could not be forced. Nor could pagans be punished for offenses against God, because Christians committed just as many such offenses as pagans. The pope had no right to give European rulers dominion over primitive peoples; the most he could do was to allocate spheres for missionary work. Pagans had a right to their property and to their own rulers; they were not irrational. One could not speak of discovery as if the lands had been previously uninhabited; thus the only possible justification for conquest might be the protection of the innocent from cannibalism and human sacrifice. If a Christian ruler presumed to rule over a colony, it was his duty to give it benefits equal to those of the home country and to send efficient ministers to see just laws observed. The Indians were as much subjects of the king of Spain “as any man in Sevilla.”

At Salamanca, Vitoria revived the study of the works of St. Thomas Aquinas. None of his lectures survives except in students’ notes, but his recapitulations—mandatory summaries of the year’s course—survive in unusual numbers. He rewrote his lectures annually, even after 26 years of lecturing, telling his students that lecture notes from the previous year would not be useful. He answered questions both during and after class, and his style is said to have been lively and witty.

Vitoria’s writings on war were addressed to the possibility of limiting the horrors of contemporary warfare. In principle, war was not justified except as defense against aggression or to right a very great wrong. In any case, the declaration of war should be preceded by efforts at conciliation and arbitration. A ruler should also consider whether the war might not do more harm than good. Innocent persons might be killed only if it was absolutely impossible to distinguish them from participants. Finally, if a subject’s conscience told him a war was wrong, he must not take part in it.

Vitoria’s arguments, involving the application of moral principles, led to his being often consulted by the emperor Charles V. In 1530 the empress wrote to ask him about the divorce of King Henry VIII of England, and this led him to give a course of lectures on matrimony. In 1539 the emperor himself wrote to inquire about the possibility of sending 12 “learned and pious friars” to Mexico to found a university, and a second time to ask for some of Vitoria’s pupils. Vitoria’s open criticism did not affect Charles’s friendly attitude; in 1541 he wrote to Vitoria twice on the subject of the Indians. In 1545 Prince Philip (later Philip II of Spain) wrote in his father’s behalf to invite Vitoria to the Council of Trent. Vitoria declined, saying he was “more likely to go to the other world.” He died in the following year at age 60.

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Influence

Vitoria’s influence was widespread; it swept the universities and even affected the royal councils. About 5,000 students passed through his classrooms; 24 of his pupils held chairs of arts or theology at Salamanca; and in 1548 two also held chairs of St. Thomas Aquinas at Alcalá, the rival university.

Vitoria and some of his contemporaries are sometimes credited with being the founders of international law. But, while it is true that their sense of living in an expanding world made them more aware than their predecessors of the unity of mankind and more anxious to assert it, their theory contained no pacts or covenants, only good and useful universal custom, which might be expected to change as nations developed. This position is much closer to the traditional law of nations, or jus gentium, than to modern international law.