In the 3rd century, Rome had been encroaching on the Greek settlements of southern Italy and Sicily. Pyrrhus, as noted above, had been called in by Tarentum in the Tarentines’ fear of Rome. Hieron (c. 306–215), a Syracusan supporter of Pyrrhus, seized power in his city; he was made king in 269 and actually reigned for 54 years. For a year or two he continued to oppose Rome, but then he formed an alliance with it, helping it in its wars with Carthage. Farther away yet, Massalia (modern Marseille), an outpost of Greek culture, took care to maintain good relations with Rome; at the same time, it maintained a strong independent navy and a stable oligarchic government. (Massalia is a classic example, often forgotten, of the durability of the Greek city-state in the Hellenistic age; even in 121 bce, when the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis was established, Massalia was still an equal ally of the Roman Republic.)

In the late 220s new monarchs acceded to the throne in the three great kingdoms of Syria, Egypt, and Macedon, and Polybius chose that point for the formal start of his history. Antiochus III (c. 242–187), called the Great, succeeded his brother Seleucus II in Syria, and from the first he showed a desire for imperialist expansion. His attempt to conquer Egyptian territory in the Palestinian area in the Fourth Syrian War (219–216) was foiled at the battle of Raphia. His campaigns in the east were more successful: he secured Armenia, Parthia and Bactria became his vassals, and he carried out impressive demonstrations near the northwestern frontier of India and across the Persian Gulf. He turned to adventures in Europe but came up against a Rome resurgent after its war with Hannibal; by the peace of Apamea in 188 he was confined to his still considerable Asian domains. In Egypt, Ptolemy IV Philopator (c. 244–205) succeeded to power in 221. He repelled Antiochus III at Raphia with Egyptian soldiers, and his reign was marked by the power of native Egyptians and of Nubian rulers in the south. He died in 205, leaving a five-year-old son. There occurred an uprising, which deposed his minister Agathocles, and disturbances throughout the reign. Philip V of Macedon (238–179) came to the throne in the same year. Although popular with the common people and quite capable on the battlefield, he showed unsound judgment and lacked stability of temperament. Like Antiochus, he had expansionist ambitions, but he supported Hannibal against Rome and was roundly defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalae in 197.

Rome was almost forced into the Greek world. In 229–228 and again in 219 it had been campaigning against pirates in Illyria. Then, from 218 to 201, it was preoccupied with and became drained by the Second Punic War with Hannibal. Even so, Rome kept Philip V at bay and, once Hannibal was eliminated, defeated him in the Second Macedonian War. Rhodes and Pergamum had checked Philip’s enterprises in the Aegean but were understandably nervous about his future intentions. They called in the Romans, who were equally suspicious of Philip. Their victory over him at Cynoscephalae, where the Macedonian phalanx of heavy infantry showed that it was hard to beat if it kept its ranks but vulnerable if it did not, demonstrated Rome’s supremacy. Rome, however, annexed no territory; the narrow oligarchy governing Rome had no desire to take on administrative responsibilities that might require extending the circle of those in power. The young commander Titus Quinctius Flamininus (consul in 198) was a philhellene. At the Isthmian Games in 196 he proclaimed the freedom of Greece. A priesthood to him was set up at Chalcis, which still survived in Plutarch’s time, and a paean was composed to Titus, Zeus, and Roma, ending “Hail Paean Apollo, hail Titus our Saviour” (or “Liberator”). He checked the ambitions of Nabis of Sparta, who combined the revolutionary program of Cleomenes III with imperialism and cruelty. Yet in 194 all Roman troops were withdrawn from Greece.

The next challenge came from Antiochus, as already indicated. The Romans returned to Greece to fight him. They defeated him in Asia, strengthening Pergamum and Rhodes at his expense but annexing no territory themselves. Then Perseus (c. 212–165), son of Philip V, succeeded to his throne and power in 179. He secured his position by dynastic marriages; he wedded the daughter of Seleucus IV (c. 218–175) and was allied by marriage to Prusias I Cholus of Bithynia. In addition, he used diplomacy to extend his influence. Nevertheless, in 172 Eumenes II of Pergamum (d. 159), who had succeeded his long-lived father in 197 and who was a great builder in his capital, felt threatened by the growth of Macedonian power and appealed to Rome. The result was the so-called Third Macedonian War (172–168), which ended with the defeat of Perseus by Lucius Aemilius Paullus at Pydna. Macedonia was divided into four republics—and yet again the Romans withdrew without annexations. If Rome, as its enemies avowed, was a dragon, it was a reluctant dragon.

Meantime, Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Syria (c. 215–163) had come to power in 175. He had been a hostage in Rome and was a passionate philhellene; he paid lip service to the political traditions of both Athens and Rome. The Romans, however, prevented him from annexing Egypt and Cyprus, which he had invaded in 168.

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Ancient Greece

Antiochus actively pursued a policy of Hellenization as a means to unify his kingdom. This policy, however, led to an uprising in Judaea, though it should be emphasized that it was a pro-Syrian party among the Jews that applied to the king for permission to build a gymnasium, with all that this implied. Party conflict among the Jews—i.e., the supporters of Hellenization and the orthodox Jews who fiercely opposed it—was a major factor in the disturbance. Equally, Antiochus’s sense of his own divinity, represented by the title Epiphanes (“God Manifest”), was unacceptable to the orthodox Jews who recognized the absolute claims of the God of Israel. Antiochus forbade the practices of the Jewish faith and placed an altar to Olympian Zeus (“an abomination of desolation”) on the altar of the temple. Resistance flared up, first passive, then, under the leadership of Judas Maccabaeus (who made “a league of amity and confederacy” with the Romans), active and military. The details of the conflict as it spread over decades and the reigns of successive rulers of Syria are complex: suffice it to say here that for virtually a century the Jewish people enjoyed a large measure of de facto independence.

By 146 the Romans were impatient with Greek instability, and at the same time they were determined to have done with Carthage. The city was razed and a province established in the fertile farmland of modern Tunisia. A pretender, who had arisen in Macedon, invaded Thessaly; he was defeated, captured, and executed, and Macedonia was annexed as a Roman province. The Greeks clashed with the Romans; patriotic sentiment ran high but to no effect. The Romans treated Corinth as Alexander had treated Thebes—they leveled it. In the rest of Greece the leagues were dissolved, democracies abolished, and power placed with the rich. Intercity peace was established and left to the governor of Macedonia to enforce. The ironic result was that the city-states had, imposed from outside, a degree of autonomy and peace they had previously lacked. Then, in 133, Attalus III of Pergamum (c. 170–133) bequeathed his kingdom to Rome—an odd, though perhaps realistic bequest. It aroused opposition, led by a pretender named Aristonicus, who was driven by a combination of personal ambition, nationalist resentment, and utopian idealism. The movement was backed by a Stoic philosopher named Blossius, who had been concerned with the reforms of the Gracchi in Rome. It spread among the oppressed and aimed to establish a utopian “City of the Sun.” Roman military power, however, was too strong. Aristonicus was defeated and killed; Pergamene territory became the Roman province of Asia.

For the most part the story of the kingdoms of Egypt and Syria during the 2nd and 1st centuries was one of stormy and deeply divisive feuds. In Egypt brother-and-sister marriage in the royal house was frequently practiced. The rulers were for the most part an undistinguished lot, yet the country remained wealthy, and there was expansion to the south. In Syria civil war and division seemed to be the rule rather than the exception. Antiochus VII Sidetes (c. 159–129), after a victorious campaign in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and even Media, looked briefly as if he might restore the lost glories. The Parthians, however, rallied, surprising and killing him in the winter of 130–129, and regained all he had recovered. Thereafter the kingdom became weak and divided, and neighbouring states were constantly gnawing at its edges. Far to the east the Greek dynasty that had ruled Bactria since about 256 was coming to an end by the middle of the 1st century. In western India, however, Menander, a hero of Indian legend, was in power; the art of the Gandhara region (present northwestern Pakistan) shows marked Greek influence.

Mithradates (Mithridates) VI Eupator of Pontus (c. 132–63 bce) was still a minor in 120—the year that his father was murdered—when he was named joint ruler with his mother and brother. For some years he was a refugee from his mother’s power. Then, in a sudden sally, he secured the throne, imprisoned his mother, killed his brother, and married his sister. Pontus, sprawling along the southern coast of the Black Sea, included Greek colonies and a native population; the largest section of the people, including the rulers, were Iranian. Mithradates was able, cunning, and ambitious. He secured money and men by expanding to the north and then turned to Anatolia, the Aegean islands, and even Greece, where the financial oppression of the Romans made him appear a liberator. The Romans defeated him time and again, but he showed a subtle resilience until his final defeat by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106–48 bce). In 67 Pompey made his greatest contribution to peaceful trade and development by his systematic destruction of the pirates. He put an end to the danger from Mithradates, who was driven from his kingdom and had himself killed by a bodyguard in 63. Pompey in his celebrated settlement of the East annexed Syria as a Roman province, settled Judaea, and planted Roman colonies.

Henceforth the Greek world was dominated by Rome. Julius Caesar and Pompey faced one another at Pharsalus in Thessaly in 48. Mark Antony and Octavian faced Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus at Philippi in Thrace. The brilliant Cleopatra VII (69–30 bce), last of the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, was ambitious to rule the world. In the realism of power politics she had to conquer Rome: the path lay through marriage with whoever held the power there. The surviving portraits show that she was no great beauty. Nonetheless, she charmed Caesar and held Antony in the power of her personality. Yet she backed the wrong man. A third conflict for the mastery of the world in two decades was held in Greece, culminating in the naval battle of Actium off the western coast in 31. The victor was Octavian (63 bce–14 ce), the future Caesar Augustus. The last kingdom of Alexander’s successors fell to Rome.

The Greek world under the Roman Empire

Under Augustus, Macedonia, though including Thessaly, was separated from a new province of Achaea with its administrative centre in Corinth; both provinces were assigned to the Roman Senate. Thrace remained a kingdom and was not annexed until 46 ce, when it became a province under an imperial procurator. Asia was a province, incorporating the western coast of Anatolia and reaching into the interior. Bithynia-Pontus stretched along the northern coastline. There was a third area of special command in Cilicia, but this did not last; part of it went to Syria, part to a new province, Galatia (25 bce), and part to small vassal states. The imperial province of Cilicia dates from 72 ce. Lycia et Pamphylia became a separate province under Claudius in 43 ce, and Cappadocia had been annexed earlier under Tiberius in 17 ce. Cyprus constituted a province, at first under the emperor, but later it was transferred to the senate. Crete and Cyrene formed a single province. Syria was the most important of the eastern provinces. Finally there was Egypt, an imperial preserve and vital for the grain supply and revenue of the empire.

During the next century and a half, four major factors affected the eastern half of the empire. First, a whole series of earthquakes and other calamities devastated the cities of Anatolia. (Strabo, the aforementioned Greek historian and geographer, has an appalling account of the eruptions around Philadelphia, which drove the inhabitants into the open country as refugees.) The Roman emperor Tiberius (ruled 14–37 ce) met these disasters with constructive aid, and 12 cities set up a record of his benefactions, calling him “the simultaneous founder of 12 cities.” Second, there began to be trouble with the Jews, not just in Judaea but in Alexandria and elsewhere as well. The Roman emperor Caligula’s demands for worship led to an embassy to Rome, recorded by the great Hellenized Jewish scholar Philo Judaeus (c. 30 bce–45 ce). The emperor’s death resolved the problem, but even the more tolerant Claudius (ruled 41–54 ce) had to intervene in Alexandria. The wars of 66–70 and 132–135, revolts against Roman rule in Judea, had the effect of further dispersing the Jewish people around the empire. Third, Nero (ruled 54–68), patron of the arts and philhellene, made a triumphal tour of Greece, dancing, singing, competing, and carrying away the prizes. The four great festivals at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and the Isthmus were crowded into one year for his sake. “The Greeks are the only people who understand how to be an audience,” he said. He proposed and began a Corinth canal and proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks, which, in effect, meant reduced taxation. Finally, there was the eastern frontier and the power of the Parthians, and subsequently Sāsānian Persia. Armenia was a focal point. The rulers in general walked a tightrope between the great powers with skill. Trajan (ruled 98–117), however, followed a strong-arm policy. He annexed Armenia, making it a province, did the same to Mesopotamia and to Adiabene, and captured Ctesiphon. On his coins he put the inscription Parthia capta (“Parthia conquered”), followed by rex Parthis datus (“the king given to the Parthians”) as he imposed a puppet monarch. He dreamed of being a second Alexander, but he died, and Hadrian (ruled 117–138) gave up the three new provinces, retaining only a fourth, Arabia.

A period of peace was then followed by one of chaos. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161–180), Ctesiphon was again taken; but there also was a disastrous plague spread through the Greek world and even to Italy and Rome. The 19th-century classical historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr said that the ancient world never recovered from the blow. In addition, mainland Greece suffered from an incursion of a people called the Costoboci, who succeeded in sacking even Eleusis in 170–171. The accession of Septimius Severus (ruled 193–211), who came from Africa, brought a remarkable coterie of women from Syria to power in Rome. Julia Domna, “Julia the philosopher,” was the emperor’s second wife. She established a highly cultured court, inviting to it scholars and writers such as Galen and Philostratus from the Greek east. Her sister Julia Maesa and her nieces Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea were responsible for the coming to power first of the fantastic Elagabalus and then of the young Severus Alexander.

In 224 the Sāsānian dynasty came to power in Persia with an autocratic centralized government upheld by a strong religious commitment. Its rulers aimed to drive the Romans out of Asia; in 256 they ravaged Antioch, and in 260 they captured the emperor Valerian. At Palmyra, an outpost of Greek culture, the remarkable Septimia Zenobia came to power and at one time conquered Syria, Egypt, and much of Anatolia. In 267 the Germanic Heruli actually sacked Athens, Corinth, Árgos, and Sparta. But the Romans were resilient. Aurelian recovered the lost ground. He had, however, felt the power of the east, and in 274 he introduced the Unconquered Sun as the supreme god of the Romans. It was clear to the emperor Diocletian that the administrative system had to be changed; he placed two rulers in charge of the east (himself being one of them), and two of the west, with 13 regions and 116 provinces. Nicomedia in Bithynia (now İzmit, Turkey) was chosen as the eastern capital. Constantine (c. 285–337), after winning sole power, went further and moved the capital of the whole empire into the east. He thought first of Troy, as Julius Caesar had before him, but in the end he chose Byzantium with its magnificent site where the Bosporus, the Golden Horn, and the Propontis meet. On May 11, 330, he inaugurated New Rome, or Constantinople (now Istanbul), to be the capital of the new Christian empire. It was, in a sense, the triumph of Hellenism and ensured the survival of the Roman dominion in the east for more than 1,000 years.