Erik the Red founded a small Norse colony on Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat) in 986 ce, although the Norse and the Thule people seem not to have interacted until the 13th century. The Norse colony was abandoned in the early 15th century, a time when a general climatic cooling trend probably made subsistence farming unsustainable there. European fishermen built seasonally used base camps on Greenland’s southern coasts during the 16th and 17th centuries. During the periods of European absence, Inuit peoples sometimes burned the seemingly abandoned buildings in order to simplify the collection of iron nails and metal fittings; these were easily transformed into implements that proved more durable than traditional stone tools. This destruction of fishing camps created tensions between the Europeans and the Inuit; the groups sometimes fought, but there were apparently no attempts at political domination.

In 1721 a permanent Danish-Norwegian colony was founded on Greenland; its goals were missionization and trade. Unusually, the region’s Indigenous peoples were from the first treated as full citizens of the kingdom. Epidemics of European diseases struck almost immediately, killing as many as one-third of the people on the island. In 1776 the Danish government granted a trade monopoly to the Royal Greenlandic Trading Company; with the restriction of contact with outsiders, losses to epidemic disease were greatly reduced. Denmark retained a trading monopoly with Greenland until 1951.

Indigenous languages remained in general use after colonization. Because missionaries often learned Inuit while residing in Nuuk (now the capital city) and then left for more-distant locales, the Nuuk dialect came into common use throughout Greenland. This helped create a sense of ethnic unity among Indigenous Greenlanders, and that unity continued to grow with the 1861 publication of the first Inuit-language newspaper, Atuagagdliutit (an invented word originally meaning “distributed reading matter” or “free newspaper”). By the late 19th century, Greenland’s Indigenous peoples had created a significant and growing vernacular literature and a name for their shared identity, Kalaaleq (“Greenland Inuk”; Inuk is the local ethnonym for someone who is a member of an Inuit-speaking group). By the 21st century the terms Kalaallit (West Greenlanders), Inugguit (from Thule district), and Iit (East Greenlanders) had come into usage by the Indigenous people, who call their homeland Kalaallit Nunaat (now Greenland’s official name).

In 1862 Greenland was granted limited local self-government. In the period from 1905 to 1929, its residents shifted from a traditional subsistence economy to sheep breeding and cod fishing (although hunting remained important in the early 21st century); schools began to teach Danish. In 1953, after more than 200 years as a colony, Greenland became an integral part of Denmark and gained representation in the national legislative assembly. In 1979 it achieved complete home rule under the Greenland Home Rule Act. See also Greenland: History.

The Inuit Institute, Greenland’s first institution of higher education, was formed in 1983. In 1989 it was reorganized as a university, Ilisimatusarfik, and became one of the few institutions dedicated to the study of Kalaaleq traditional cultures and languages. Within Greenland, university training in other subjects is still limited; as younger Kalaaleq commonly speak Danish as a second language, many enroll in Danish universities.

Southern and southwestern Alaska

In 1728 the Russian tsar Peter I (the Great) supported an expedition to the northern Pacific. Led by Vitus Bering, the expedition set out to determine whether Siberia and North America were connected and, if not, whether there was a navigable sea route connecting the commercial centres of western Russia to China. Although poor visibility limited the results of this voyage, subsequent Russian journeys determined that the Pacific coast of North America was home to a seemingly inexhaustible population of sea otters. Russian entrepreneurs quickly seized on the opportunity to garner sea otter pelts, known for their lush feel and superior insulating qualities, as these were at the time almost the only items for which the Chinese were willing to engage in trade with Russia.

Russian rule was established in the region quickly and often brutally. Perhaps the worst atrocities occurred in 1745, when a large party of Russian and Siberian hunters overwintered in the Aleutian Islands; members of the party engaged in wholesale murder and sexual assault for which they were later charged in the Russian courts and punished. Similar incidents of violent conquest occurred throughout the region, and over the next several decades the Indigenous population was forced into virtual slavery. Russian administrators recognized Indigenous expertise in capturing sea otters and so negotiated with the hunters during the first part of the colonial era (albeit on an unequal basis given the colonizers’ imposing firepower). However, these more or less voluntary levels of fur production proved inadequate for commercial trading. By 1761 the Russians had instituted a village-based quota system; they remained unsatisfied with the results and soon took entire villages hostage as a way to ensure the docility of Unangax (Aleut) and Yupiit men, nearly all of whom were impressed into service as hunters.

This created intense hardship for the elders, women, and children left behind. Hunting had provided most of their subsistence, and, with the hunters away or exhausted, many communities suffered from malnourishment or starvation in addition to the epidemic diseases that characterized European conquest throughout the Americas. Within a century of initial contact, the Unangam Tunuu- (Aleut-) speaking population had declined to no more than 2,000; at least 80 percent of their original number were gone. Around Kodiak Island and the Pacific coast, the decrease in roughly the same period was to about 3,000, a loss of about two-thirds. On the Bering Sea, where the fur trade was less intense, the loss was limited to about one-third or one-half of the population, all of it coming in the 19th century.

In 1799 the Russian-American Company was granted what amounted to governance of the Russian colonies in the North Pacific. The company undertook a period of expansion and eventually ruled thousands of miles of coast, from the Bering Sea to northern California. Russian Orthodox missionaries arrived at about the same time. They observed the brutalities committed against Indigenous peoples, reported these to the tsar, and worked to ameliorate the horrendous conditions in the hostage villages. Although protective language was placed in the company’s second charter, enforcement was haphazard. Nonetheless, and perhaps because the priests were clearly their advocates, many Unangan and Yupiit converted to Orthodox Christianity.

The U.S. government purchased Russian America in 1867 and subsequently imposed its assimilationist policies on Alaskan Natives (see Alaska Purchase). Various forms of pressure were applied to ensure that Indigenous communities shifted from subsistence to wage labour, from the use of their own languages to English, and from Russian Orthodox traditions to mainline Protestantism, among other things.

As elsewhere in the United States, these policies undermined Indigenous traditions and generally caused local economies to shift from self-sufficiency and sustainability to a reliance on outside capital. As the sea otter neared extinction, some Yupiit and Unangax communities shifted to the hunting of other fur-bearing mammals, such as seals and Arctic foxes. As among the neighbouring Northwest Coast Indians, other groups used their knowledge of local fisheries to ensure employment. These strategies met with various levels of success, but the Indigenous communities often faced circumstantial difficulties: demand for furs collapsed during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and fishermen had to cope with natural cycles in the population levels of various kinds of fish, the vagaries of consumer taste, and competition from better-equipped Euro-Americans.

By the mid-20th century, international politics were also affecting large numbers of Indigenous Alaskans. World War II saw the removal of whole Alaskan Native communities under the aegis of protection and national defense. After the war, having in some cases endured years of difficult “temporary” conditions, those who returned to their homes found them in disrepair and in some cases ransacked. The Cold War ensured that the military presence in Alaska would continue to grow until the late 20th century; new facilities were often placed on property that Indigenous groups used and regarded as their own, creating further hardships.