Muḥammad ʿAlī, sent to Egypt in command of an Ottoman expeditionary contingent to oppose the French, had by 1805 succeeded in receiving the appointments of viceroy and pasha of Egypt from the Ottoman government. During a rule of more than 40 years, Muḥammad ʿAlī executed a series of sweeping programs, including the reorganization of the administrative structure, the improvement of irrigation systems, and the introduction of cotton, a commodity which Egypt would soon produce and trade on a large scale.

Modern urban growth in Cairo began in the 1830s, but it was only during Ismāʿīl’s reign (1863–79) that the city was fundamentally transformed. Influenced by Baron Haussmann’s renovation of Paris, Ismāʿīl ordered the construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval core. French city-planning methods dominated the design of the districts of Al-Azbakiyyah (with its large park), ʿAbdīn, and Ismāʿīliyyah—all now central zones of contemporary Cairo. By the end of the 19th century these districts were well-developed, but with the beginning of British rule of Egypt in 1882 they were transformed into a colonial enclave.

Awarded the right to hereditary rule of Egypt and the Sudan in 1841, Muḥammad ʿAlī founded the dynasty that governed Egypt without interruption until 1952, when Egypt’s last king, Farouk I, was forced to abdicate by a military revolt led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. With the abolition of the monarchy, Egypt became a republic headed by a president.

After the 1950s, Cairo and its metropolitan area witnessed a significant period of growth. Improvements in transportation fostered the growth of suburban Heliopolis and Al-Maʿādī; flood control permitted riverfront development; and bridges encouraged settlement of islands (Al-Rawḍah and Al-Zamālik) and of the west bank. By 1970, however, the city was suffering from overcrowding, severe traffic congestion, and acute pollution. Further, fueled by industrialization, the city had been growing northward since the 1950s into the fertile delta, resulting in the consumption of valuable farmland. To combat this uneven sprawl, in the 1970s the government began developing new towns and planned suburbs in the desert, such as Madīnat al-ʿĀshir min Ramaḍān, Madīnat Sittah Uktūbar, and Madīnat al-Sādāt.

By the beginning of the 21st century, Cairo had become an increasingly stratified city, with large areas of informal housing occupied by the lower and middle classes and gated communities serving the upper classes. Although Cairo continues to be faced with many of the same problems afflicting other large metropolises in the developing world—particularly the problem of providing transportation and other infrastructural services to its greatly expanded population—it nevertheless remains among the world’s most vibrant cities.

Mass demonstrations in the early 2010s highlighted the ongoing vulnerability of the city’s centralized layout. The protests, centred in downtown’s spacious Tahrir Square, succeeded in their early aim to overthrow Hosni Mubarak but continued years afterward amid dissatisfaction with the transition to a new system of government. With many essential government buildings located in the vicinity of the square, the large crowds proved disruptive to the carrying out of basic government functions. During the presidency of Abdel Fattah al-Sisi, who was inaugurated in 2014, the Egyptian government began an ambitious project to move its basic functions to new locations; the project included the construction of the so-called New Administrative Capital (NAC; Al-ʿĀṣimah al-Idāriyyah al-Jadīdah) some 30 miles (45 km) east of the city.