- Gaelic:
- Dun Eideann
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Edinburgh has a mild climate. Its proximity to the sea mitigates temperature extremes. Winters are relatively warm, with average daily minimum temperatures remaining above freezing, while summers are comparatively cool, with temperatures seldom rising much above 70 °F (21 °C). The prevailing easterly winds are often cold but relatively dry; warmer southwesterly winds coming off the North Atlantic Current often bring rain. Annual precipitation is moderate, averaging 27 inches (685 mm), and is evenly distributed throughout the year. Edinburgh lacks prolonged sunshine: on average it annually receives less than one-third of the possible sunshine for its latitude. But its ever-changing cloudscape partly compensates for this.
City layout
Until the late 18th century, Edinburgh followed a common European pattern by continually renewing itself on its original site, and the lack of space for outward expansion compelled each successive phase to conform to the original layout. Subsequently, when expansion became possible, the town quickly broke free of its medieval mold, and each new development was built adjacent to, rather than on top of, its predecessor. Consequently, the soaring vertical lines of the Old Town confront the expansive horizontal ones of the Georgian New Town to the north, and both are encircled by acres of individually distinct Victorian suburbs and finally by a ring of 20th-century construction that makes its way toward hills and sea.
Expansion from the Old Town
For centuries the barrier to northward expansion was the lake and encircling marsh—the North Loch, or Nor’ Loch—that choked the valley along the foot of the moraine and the Castle Rock. King James II (reigned 1437–60) originally had the lake created from swampland as a defense against attack. Even when it was drained and the land was firmed, access to the north had to await the ability of civil engineers to span the valley with a bridge. This was achieved in 1772 with the completion of the North Bridge—70 feet (21 metres) high, 1,130 feet (344 metres) long, and canted steeply northward; today’s steel-arch structure dates from 1895.
In the centuries between the founding of the Old Town and the beginning of the New Town, Edinburgh eased itself down the southern flank of the moraine. Its original markets were all held along the High Street. By the 1330s a second, parallel street called the Cowgate (originally called the Southgate) had been built, at a lower level, at the foot of the steep slope to the south. Halfway down the Cowgate is King’s Wall, the Old Town’s first known defense, which was constructed in the mid-15th century. At the west end of the Cowgate, the Grassmarket was built in the shadow of the Castle Rock, and by the 17th century it had become the Old Town’s main market for sheep and cattle—as well as the location of its public executions. Edinburgh, in effect, is a two-tier town, and the steep slope between its two main streets has made travel difficult for medieval horses and modern tourists alike. Farther to the south, beyond the Magdalen Chapel (built between 1541 and 1544)—the last of Edinburgh’s pre-Reformation churches and now ironically owned by the Scottish Reformation Society—the town slowly climbed the facing slope of the adjacent moorland. Candlemaker Row, the home of a noxious and inflammable trade that was pushed for safety reasons to the edge of the burgh, is a short street that runs in a northwest-southeast direction and marks the southern limits of the Old Town. At the top of this steep street, just outside the old Bristo Port (or gate) and on the site of the pre-Reformation Franciscan friary, Greyfriars, the town’s first post-Reformation church, was built in the early 17th century to house the growing population of the southwest quarter. Little remains of the Flodden Wall, built in the years after the traumatic Scottish defeat at the Battle of Flodden (1513) to guard against English attacks. Near Greyfriars is the original site of the “Toun’s College” (later the University of Edinburgh), granted a royal charter in 1582, at the Kirk o’Field, where Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, second husband of Mary, was assassinated in 1567. The medieval collegiate church no longer exists, as the magnificent “Old College,” designed by Scottish architect Robert Adam in 1789, now sprawls across the site. Farther south is the university’s main campus, which encircles the formal gardens of George Square. Edinburgh’s first real suburb, George Square was laid out in 1766—nearly 20 years before the first stages of the building of the New Town; although only part of two sides of the square—with its original small-scale domestic architecture—survives amid the bleak concrete tower blocks of the modern university, it is noticeably friendlier than the somewhat bleak facades of the New Town.
Edinburgh’s bridges
In the 50 years following the building of the North Bridge, four other bridges were completed, enabling the city to expand where it pleased. Two of these, the South Bridge (1788) and the King George IV Bridge (1834), are multiple-arch constructions that span the Cowgate ravine. These new bridges opened the south to rapid expansion. In the same period Waterloo Bridge, with its Regency Arch (1820), opened the eastern slopes of Calton Hill (northeast of the Castle Rock) to Regency building, while King’s Bridge (1833), leaping westward from the Castle Rock, was the vital link in the so-called “western approach.” Throughout the Victorian and Edwardian ages, the city grew in every direction, recording in its stone tenements and detached mansions every foible of changing taste: Neoclassical, Gothic, Scotch Baronial, Italianate, and a more recent profusion of 20th-century brick and concrete.