In 1329 King Robert I (Robert the Bruce; reigned 1306–29) granted Edinburgh a charter confirming its privileges as a royal burgh. The city profited from the sack and loss of Berwick (until that time Scotland’s major port) in the Wars of Independence (1296–1328) fought with England. James II (reigned 1437–60) was crowned in Holyrood, and most of his parliaments were held in the burgh (on the site, adjacent to St. Giles, where the Tolbooth was erected in 1466). After the Wars of Independence, Edinburgh quickly developed into Scotland’s major trading centre and was, by the reign of James III (1460–88), its capital; indeed, a royal charter during his reign described Edinburgh as “the principal burgh of our country.”

The medieval burgh—churches and royal and civic buildings apart—was built of wood, and only the houses of the well-to-do had glazed windows and wooden doors. All domestic refuse and the offal of the skinners, butchers, and fishmongers were heaped on either side of the main street, forcing pedestrians to the centre of the thoroughfare. More than a dozen separate markets stretched along the length of the High Street in 1477. The graveyards—including that of St. Giles, in the town centre—were used as rubbish dumps. That Edinburgh was uncommonly nasty in this respect resulted largely from its physical setting and the absence of a convenient water supply. Until 1681 water had to be fetched from pumped wells in the Canongate. William Dunbar, the great Middle Scots poet of the 15th–16th century, wrote in trenchant verse:

May nane pass through your principal gates
for stink of haddocks and of skates,
for cries of carlings [old women] and debates [arguments]…
tailors, souters [shoemakers], and craftis vile
the fairest of your streets does fyle [defile]…

To the moderate prosperity of the late medieval burgh, King James IV (reigned 1488–1513) added a touch of European Renaissance culture. He patronized the arts of both culture and war and about 1501 began the construction of a palace beside Holyrood Abbey, which was substantially added to by his son James V (reigned 1513–42). In 1507, in the Cowgate, a royal license prompted the establishment of Scotland’s first printing press. In the years of political unrest following the disastrous defeat of the Scots by the English at the Battle of Flodden in Northumberland (1513), Edinburgh encircled the Old Town (as far as the Netherbow) with a defensive wall, parts of which still stand (especially in the Pleasance). It proved sadly ineffective, however, as was shown in 1544 when an English commander, the earl of Hertford, devastated part of the town, including the Canongate and Leith.

Although much of the subsequent rebuilding was still of wood, it was from this period and after that stone became more common, both for public buildings and for the residences of the wealthy. Edinburgh’s position made it the seat of not only the court but also the Privy Council, Parliament, and the law. James V established the Court of Session, the central civil-law court, in the capital in 1532. The great landed families began to keep town houses in the Canongate.

From 1500 to 1640 Edinburgh’s population surged, stimulated by an increasing monopoly that it enjoyed over foreign trade and its status as the capital of a growing royal bureaucracy. In 1579 the young King James VI (James I of England from 1603) established a court in near-permanent residence at Holyrood. This urban court opened up Edinburgh to both European culture and aristocratic violence; a number of feuds, murders, and even gunfights between rival gangs of nobles and their retainers took place in the town’s narrow closes. Learning was not forgotten, however. In 1582 James granted the town council a charter encouraging the provision of buildings to house the teaching of “humanity, philosophy, theology, medicine, and laws, or of any other liberal sciences whatsoever.” This stimulated the opening the following year of “the Town’s [Toun’s] College,” which later became the University of Edinburgh.

Political eclipse and continued growth

After 1603, when James VI succeeded to the English throne and left for the south, Edinburgh suffered a decline in political and cultural importance, yet the town continued to grow (from the turn of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century, the population more than quadrupled to some 50,000 people). The first Edinburgh girls’ school, the Merchant Maiden Hospital, was opened in 1605, and construction of Heriot’s Hospital (now George Heriot’s School), a school endowed by the bequest of the goldsmith, moneylender, and philanthropist George Heriot, began in 1628. Parliament House, on the site of St. Giles’s burial ground, was completed in 1639 and was occupied by the Scottish Parliament until its abolition in 1707.

By the mid-17th century the area around St. Giles had become the centre of the capital’s bustling life. Immediately to the west of the church stood the Tolbooth, combining the roles of council chamber, jail, and place of execution. To the south was the Parliament House and embryonic Parliament Close, with the Court of Exchequer. To the north was the narrow tenement called the Luckenbooths, with its street-level shops. Around the church walls were the krames—wooden booths of goldsmiths, jewelers, stationers, and craftsmen. To the east was the Mercat Cross, where business was done from morning to evening.